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COLLEGE   HISTORIES    OF  ART 

EDITED    BY 

JOHN    C.  VAN    DYKE.   L.H.D. 


HISTORY    OF  SCULPTURE 

ALLAN    MARQUAND  ' 
A.  L.  FROTHINGHAM,  JR. 


COLLEGE  HISTORIES  OF  ART 

EDITED   BY 

JOHN  C.  VAN  DYKE,  L.H.D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  THE  HISTORY  OF  ART  IN  RUTGERS 
COLLEGE 


HISTORY  OF  PAINTING 

By  JOHN  C.  VAN  DYKE,  the  Editor  of  the  Series.  With 
Frontispiece  and  152  Illustrations,  Bibliographies,  and 
Index.  Crown- 8vo,  net,  $2.00. 

HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 
By  ALFRED  D.  F.  HAMLIN,  A.M.,  Professor  of  the  His- 
tory of  Architecture,  Columbia  University,  New  York. 
With  Frontispiece  and  235  Illustrations  and  Diagrams, 
Bibliographies,  Glossary,  Index  of  Architects,  and  a 
General  Index.  Crown  8vo,  net,  $2.25. 

HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

By  ALLAN  MARQUAND,  Ph.D.,  L.H.D.,  Professor  of  Art 
and  Archaeology  in  Princeton  University,  and  ARTHUR 
L.  Frothingham,  Jr.,  Ph.D.  With  Frontispiece  and 
113  Illustrations.  Crown  8vo,  net,  $1.75. 


FABNESE  HERA.     NAPLES. 


A  TEXT-BOOK   OF   THE 

HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


BY 

ALLAN  MARQUAND,  PH.D.,  L.H.D. 

PROFESSOR    OF    ARCHEOLOGY   AND   THE    HISTORY    OF    ART 
IN    PRINCETON    UNIVERSITY 

AND 

ARTHUR  L.   FROTHINGHAM,  JR.,  PH.D. 


NEW  EDITION  REVISED 
NEW  IMPRESSION 


LONGMANS,    GREEN    AND    CO. 

FOURTH  AVENUE,  fcf  JQTH  STREET,  NEW  YORK 

39    PATERNOSTER    ROW,     LONDON 

BOMBAY,  CALCUTTA,  AND  MADRAS 


COPYRIGHT,  1896,  BY 
LONGMANS,  GREEN  AND  CO. 


COPYRIGHT,  IQII,  BY 
LONGMANS,  GREEN  AND  CO. 


ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 


First  Edition,  September,  1896. 

Reprinted,  December,  1898.    (Revised.)    Reprinted,  August,  igoi.    (Revised.) 
February,  1904;  September,  1905;  August,  1907;  December,  1909;  October,  1910. 
New  Edition,  Revised,  October,  1911;  Reprinted,  May,  1912;  April,  1916; 
April,  1919;   July,  1921 


PREFACE. 

THE  object  of  this  volume  is  to  provide  students  in  schools 
and  colleges  with  a  concise  survey  of  the  history  of  sculpture, 
so  that  they  may  be  able  to  comprehend  intelligently  the  sculp- 
ture of  the  past  and  the  present  in  the  countries  with  which 
our  own  civilization  has  been  and  is  most  intimately  connected. 
It  has  seemed  unnecessary  to  treat  of  prehistoric  sculpture  in 
general ;  its  connection  with  the  flow  of  civilization  is  at 
present  too  remote  and  ill  defined.  Nor  have  we  entered  upon 
the  history  of  Saracenic,  Indian,  Chinese,  and  Japanese  sculp- 
ture, although  all  of  these  have  had  some  influence  on  Euro- 
pean art.  The  various  phases  of  Oriental  art  are,  from  an 
historical  standpoint,  in  great  measure  still  a  mystery  to  the 
Western  world.  This  is  equally  true  of  the  art  of  the  semi- 
civilized  nations  whose  influence  once  spread  so  widely  upon 
our  own  hemisphere.  That  portion  of  the  general  history  of 
sculpture  which  comes  within  our  survey  is  itself  imperfectly 
known.  In  some  countries  it  has  been  easy  to  trace  the  general 
development  of  the  art;  in  others,  the  lack  of  systematic 
scientific  study  still  hides  from  us  most  important  treasures. 

The  history  of  sculpture  can  be  studied  best  with  the 
assistance  of  casts  and  photographs.  In  the  absence  of  the 
originals,  these  are  preeminently  the  source  upon  which  we 
must  rely.  As  these  are  now  within  the  grasp  of  every  school 


VI  PREFACE. 

and  college,  we  have  published  a  brief  list  indicating  where 
such  casts  and  photographs  may  best  be  obtained.  In  almost 
every  case  the  illustrations  for  this  volume  have  been  repro- 
duced from  photographs  taken  directly  from  the  original  ob- 
jects. Special  acknowledgment  is  due  to  the  editor  of  the 
Series  for  many  helpful  suggestions. 

ALLAN  MARQUAND. 

ARTHUR  L.  FROTHINGHAM,  Jx. 

PRINCETON  UNIVERSITY,  June  25,  1896. 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS. 

PACK 

PREFACE        v 

LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS xi 

GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY        ........  xv 

SPECIAL  BIOGRAPHIES xvi 

ADDRESSES  FOR  PHOTOGRAPHS  OF  SCULPTURE  ....  xviii 

ADDRESSES  FOR  PLASTER  CASTS xx 

INDEX 287 

CHAPTER   I. 
EGYPTIAN  SCULPTURE    .  .  .        I 


CHAPTER    II. 
EGYPTIAN  SCULPTURE — Continued 13 

CHAPTER   III. 
BABYLONIAN  SCULPTURE 21 

CHAPTER   IV. 
ASSYRIAN  SCULPTURE    .  36 

CHAPTER   V. 
PERSIAN  SCULPTURE •        .      48 


viii  TABLK  OF  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   VI. 

PAGB 

HITTITE  SCULPTURE      .........      53 

CHAPTER  VII 
PHOENICIAN  AND  CYPRIOTE  SCULPTURE       ...  .60 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
GREEK  SCULPTURE 68 

CHAPTER   IX. 
GREEK  SCULPTURE — Continued 81 

CHAPTER   X. 

GREEK  SCULPTURE — Continued.     Developed  Ionic  and  Doric  Sculp- 
ture   94 

CHAPTER   XI. 

GREEK   SCULPTURE — Continued.     Fourth-Century  and  Hellenistic 

Sculpture 104 

CHAPTER    XII. 
ITALIC  AND  ETRUSCAN  SCULPTURE       .        .        .        .        .        .113 

CHAPTER   XIII. 
ROMAN  SCULPTURE       .  .  .  122 


CHAPTER   XIV. 
EARLY  CHRISTIAN  AND  BYZANTINE  SCULPTURE  ....     130 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.  IX 

CHAPTER   XV. 

PAGE 

MEDIEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  ITALY 143 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
MEDIEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE      ......     153 

CHAPTER   XVII. 
MEDIEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  GERMANY 164 

CHAPTER   XVIII. 

RENAISSANCE    SCULPTURE    IN    ITALY.      The   Early   Renaissance 

(1400-1500) 176 

CHAPTER   XIX. 

RENAISSANCE    SCULPTURE    IN    ITALY — Continued.      The    Early 

Renaissance  (1400-1500) 183 

CHAPTER   XX. 

RENAISSANCE  SCULPTURE  IN  ITALY.      The  Early  Renaissance — 

Continued         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .197 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

RENAISSANCE  SCULPTURE  IN  ITALY.     The  Developed  Renaissance 

(1500-1600)  and  the  Decadence  (1600-1800)      ....     206 

CHAPTER   XXII. 
RENAISSANCE  SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE 219 


X  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   XXIII. 

PAGE 

RENAISSANCE    SCULPTURE    IN    GERMANY,    THE    NETHERLANDS, 

SPAIN,  AND  ENGLAND 230 

CHAPTER   XXIV. 

MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  ITALY,  DENMARK,  SWEDEN,  GERMANY, 

AND  RUSSIA 240 

CHAPTER   XXV. 
MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE 256 

CHAPTER   XXVI. 
MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  ENGLAND 267 

CHAPTER    XXVII. 
MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  AMERICA 275 


NOTE. 

Chapters  i  and  2,  8  to  n,  and  18  to  27  are  by  Professor 
Marquand  :  chapters  3  to  7  and  12  to  17  are  by  Professor 
Froth  ingham. 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Farnese  Hera,  Naples Frontispiece 

PAGE 

1  The  Sheik-el-Beled,  or  Mayor  of  the  Village.     Cairo   Museum  .  3 

2  Royal  Scribe  in  the  Louvre.     Ancient  Empire 5 

3  Hyksos  Chief  from  the  Fayoum.     Cairo  Museum       ...  7 

4  Ra-hotep  and   his  Wife  Nefert.     Thirteenth  Dynasty.     Cairo 

Museum        . 9 

5  Seti  I.  Worshipping.     Eighteenth  Dynasty.     Abydos         .         .  n 

6  Rameses  II.     Nineteenth  Dynasty.     Ipsamboul         ...  15 

7  Ptolemy  crowned  by  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt.     Edfou      .         .  17 

8  Sarcophagus  of  Peti-Har-si-ese  as  the  Goddess  Hathor.     Ptole- 

maic period.     Berlin  Museum iq 

9  Statue  of  Gudea  from  Tello.     Louvre,  Paris       ....  23 
10  Head  with  Turban  from  Tello.     Louvre    .....  26 
n  Impression  from  a  Babylonian  Cylinder.      Berlin  Museum          .  29 

12  Two  Divinities  escorting  a  King.     Berlin  Museum    ...  32 

13  Assur-nazir-pal  and  Attendant.     British  Museum       ...  37 

14  Relief  from  Khorsabad.     Louvre        ......  40 

15  Capture  of  Lachish  by  Sennacherib.     British  Museum         .         .  43 

16  Assur-bani-pal  stabbing  a  Lion.      British  Museum      ...  46 

17  Lion  attacking  a  Bull.     Apadana  of  Xe»ces.     Persepolis    .         .  49 

18  Bull  Head  Capital.     Palace  of  Artaxerxes  at  Susa.      Louvre       .  51 

19  Hittite  Relief  at  Carchemish-Jerablus 55 

20  "           "       from  Saktche-GOzii 57 

21  "          "      at  Boghaz-Keui 58 

22  Phoenician   Head   from  Athieno.     Metropolitan  Museum,  New 

York 61 

23  Cypriote  Statue  in  the  Assyrian  style.     Metropolitan  Museum, 

New  York 63 

24  Cypriote  Statue  in  the  Egyptian  style.     Metropolitan  Museum, 

New  York 65 

25  Lion  Gate  at  Mykenai ,         .         .  69 


xii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

MM 

26  Apollo  of  Tenea.     Glyptothek,  Munich      .....       71 

27  Bronze  Head  of  an  Athlete.     Naples  Museum    ....       73 

28  Head  of  Dionysos.     Naples  Museum 75 

29  Doriphoros  after  Polykleitos.     Naples  Museum          ...       77 

30  Metope  of  the  Parthenon.     British  Museum       ....       83 

31  Theseus,  or  Olympos,  from  Eastern  Pediment  of  the  Parthenon. 

British  Museum 85 

32  Nike  from  Western  Pediment  of  the  Parthenon.    British  Museum.       86 

33  Restoration  of  the  Nike  of  Paionios 88 

34  Poseidon,  Apollo,  and  Demeter,  from  Eastern  Frieze  of  the  Par- 

thenon.    Athens  Museum     .         .  ,        .         .         .90 

35  Head  of  the  Hermes  by  Praxiteles.     Olympia    ....       95 

36  Faun  after  Praxiteles.     Vatican,  Rome       .....       97 

37  Aphrodite  of  Melos.     Louvre     .         .         .        .        .        .        .99 

38  Apoxyomenos  after  Lysippos.     Vatican       .....     101 

39  The  Farnese  Bull.     Naples  Museum 105 

40  The  Dying  Gaul.     Capitol,  Rome 108 

41  Athene  Group  from  Altar  at  Pergamon.     Berlin  Museum   .         .     in 

42  Etruscan  Sarcophagus.     British  Museum 114 

43  Artemis  from  Lake  Falterona.      British  Museum         .         .         .117 

44  Etruscan  Cinerary  Urn.     Volterra 1 20 

45  Statue  of  Augustus.     Vatican     .         .         .         .         .         .         .123 

46  Statue  of  Juno.     Baths  of  Diocletian,  Rome       ....     125 

47  Marciana,  Sister  of  Trajan          .        .      - 127 

48  Marcus  Aurelius  sacrificing  before  the  Temple  of  Jupiter.     Capi- 

tol, Rome     .         .         .         .         .         .        .        .        .         .128 

49  The  Good  Shepherd.     Lateran,  Rome 131 

50  Early  Christian  Sarcophagus.     Lateran,  Rome  ....     133 

51  Christian  Sarcophagus  in  S.  Lorenzo  fuori  le  Mura.     Rome        .     135 

52  Ivory  Triptych  of  the  Crucifixion       .         *!'      .         .         .         .     137 

53  Bronze  Statue  of  Heraclius.      Barletta        i-r^    -.         .      •'•>       .     139 

54  Episcopal  Chair  of  Maximianus.     Ravenna         ....     141 

55  The  Nativity.     Panel  from  Pulpit  at  Pisa.     Niccola  Pisano        .     144 

56  Charity   and   the   Four  Cardinal  Virtues,  by  Giovanni  Pisano. 

Camposanto,  Pisa  ........     147 

57  Portion  of  Baptistery  Gate,  by  Andrea  Pisano.     Florence  .         .     149 

58  The  Betrothal  of  the  Virgin,  by  Orcagna.      Or  San  Michele, 

Florence 151 

59  Sculptures  of  Portal.     St.  Trophime,  Aries        .        .        .        .154 

60  Roof  Sculptures.     Notre  Dame,  Paris 157 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  xiii 

PAGE 

61  Sculptured  Figures,  left  portal  of  Cathedral  at  Rheims       .         .  160 

62  Sculptures  of  South  Door,  Cathedral  at  Amiens          .         .         .  162 

63  Book  Cover  attributed  to  Tutilo.     Monastery  of  St.  Gall    .         .  165 

64  Bronze  Doors,  Cathedral  of  Gnesen  (Bode,  Ges.  d.  D.  Plastik,  p.  31)  168 

65  Statue  of  Sibyl,  Cathedral  of  Bamberg  (Bode,  op.  fit.  p.  66)        .  171 

66  Figure  from  the  left  portal  of  the  Cathedral  of  Strassburg            .  174 

67  Story  of  Abraham,  by  Ghiberti.     Baptistery  Gate,  Florence         .  177 

68  Head  of  the  St.  George,  by  Donatello.    Or  San  Michele,  Florence  180 

69  Equestrian  Statue  of  Gattamelata,  by  Donatello.     Padua    .         .  i85 

70  Lunette,  by  Luca  della  Robbia.     Via  dell'  Agnolo,  Florence      ,  188 

71  Bust  of  Bishop  Leonardo  Salutati,  by  Mino  da  Fiesole.     Fiesole 

Cathedral <  ".  .         .         .191 

72  Pulpit  by  Benedetto  da  Majano.     S.  Croce,  Florence       .         .  194 

73  Bartolommeo  Colleoni,  by  Verrocchio.     Venice  ....  195 

74  Ilaria  del  Caretto,  by  Jacopo  della  Quercia,  Lucca  Cathedral      .  198 

75  Sculptures  from  the  Certosa  at  Pavia          .....  200 

76  Sculptured  Base  at  S.  Maria  dei  Miracoli,  Venice        .         .         .  202 

77  Head  of  Statue  of  David,  by  Michelangelo.     Museo  Nazionale, 

Florence        .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .211 

78  Tomb   of   Lorenzo   de'    Medici.     Medici   Chapel,   S.  Lorenzo, 

Florence        ..........  213 

79  Base  of  Statue  of   Perseus,  by  Benvenuto   Cellini,  Loggia  dei 

Lanzi,  Florence     .........  215 

So  The  Prophet  Daniel,  by  Bernini.     S.  Maria  del  Popolo,  Rome   .  217 

81  St.  George  and  the  Dragon,  by  Michel  Colombe.     Louvre          .  220 

82  Water  Nymphs,  by  Goujon.     Louvre          .....  223 

83  Mourning  Figure  from  the  Tomb  of  Cardinal  Mazarin,  by  Coy- 

sevox.      Louvre     .........  225 

84  Horses  of  the  Sun.     Hotel  de  Rohan,  Paris       ....  226 

85  The  Marechal  de  Saxe,  by  Pigalle.     Louvre       ....  227 

86  Head  of  Voltaire,  by  Houdon.     Louvre      .....  228 

87  King  Arthur,  by  Peter  Vischer.     Innsbruck        ....  232 

88  Death  of  the  Virgin,  by  Riemenschneider.     Wllrzburg  Cathedral  234 

89  Mask  of  a  Dying  Warrior,  by  Schltlter.     Arsenal,  Berlin    .         .  236 

90  Carved-wood  Altar-piece  at  Lombeek  Notre  Dame      .         .         .  238 

91  Cybele.      Late  Spanish  Renaissance    .         .         .         .         .         .  241 

92  Perseus,  by  Canova.     Vatican    .......  243 

93  Giotto,  by  Dupre.      Portico  of  the  Uffizi,  Florence      .         .         .  245 

94  Monument  to  Prof.  Vacca  Berlinghieri,  by  Thorwaldsen.     Cam- 

posanto,  Pisa         .........  247 


xiv  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

i 

PACK 

95  Ariadne,  by  Dannecker.     Frankfort          .....  249 

96  The  Two  Princesses,  by  Schadow.     Castle,  Berlin    .        .         .251 

97  Monument  of  Frederick  the  Great,  by  Rauch.     Berlin      .         .  252 

98  Russian  Standard  Bearer,  by  Lancere       .....  254 

99  The  Departure  of  the  Volunteers  of  1792,  by  Rude.     Arc  de 

Triomphe,  Paris          ........  257 

100  The  Lion  and  the  Snake,  bronze  by  Barye.     Tuileries,  Paris     .  259 

101  The  Florentine  Singer,  by  Paul  Dubois.     Luxembourg,  Paris  261 

102  The  Secret  of  {he  Tomb,  by  Saint  Marceaux.   Luxembourg,  Paris  263 

103  Pan  and  the.  Bears,  by  Fremiet.     Luxembourg,  Paris       .         .  264 

104  John  the  Baptist,  by  Rodin.     Luxembourg,  Paris     .         .         .  265 

105  Pauline  Bonaparte,  by  Thomas  Campbell.    Chatsworth,  England  268 

106  Lord  Beaconsfield.     Westminster  Abbey,  London    .         .         .  270 

107  Dancing,  by  Onslow  Ford         .......  272 

108  Washington  as   Olympian   Zeus,  by  Greenough.    Washington.  276 

109  The  Greek  Slave,   by   Powers,  owned   by  Duke  of  Cleveland, 

England.     Replica  in  Boston  Museum         ....  278 
no  Bronze  Relief  of  President  McCosh,  by  Augustus  St.  Gaudens. 

Princeton  University  Chapel        ......  280 

111  Death  and   the  Sculptor,  by   D.  C.  French.      From  a  cast  in 

Chicago  Art  Institute 282 

112  Nathan  Hale,  by  MacMonnies.     City  Hall  Park,  New  York    .  284 

113  Ideal  Head,  by  Herbert  Adams.     Possession  of  the  Artist         .  285 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


D'Agincourt,  Histoire  de  /'Art. 

American  Journal  of  Archaeology. 

L'Arte. 

Burchardt,  Der  Cicerone. 

Clarac,  Muse'e  de  Sculpture. 

Cicognara,  Storia  della  Sculptura. 

Cavallucci,  Manuale  di  Storia  della  Sculptura,. 

Gazette  des  Beaux  Arts. 

Gazette  Arche"ologique. 

Iconographic  Encyclopedia.     Vol.  III. 

Kiigler,  Handbuch  der  Kunstgeschichte. 

Kiihn,  Allgemeine  Kunstgeschichte. 

Liibke,  History  of  Sculpture. 

Liibke  u.  Caspar,  Denkmdler  der  Kunst. 

Monuments  et  Me'moires  de  /' Acade"mie  des  Inscriptions. 

Mitchell,  A  History  of  Ancient  Sculpture. 

Nagler,  Allgemeines  Kunstlerlexicon. 

Paris,  Manual  of  Ancient  Sculpture. 

Radcliffe,  Schools  and  Masters  of  Sculpture. 

Rayet,  Monuments  de  I*  Art  Antique. 

Reber,  History  of  Ancient  Art ;  History  of  Mediaeval  Art. 

Schnaase,  Geschichte  der  bildenden  Kunste. 

Seemann,  Kunsthistorische  Bilderbogen. 

Springer,  Kunstgeschichte. 

Von  Sybel,     Weltgeschichte  der  Kunst. 

VVinckelmann,  History  of  Ancient  Art. 


SPECIAL  BIBLIOGRAPHIES. 


See  BOOKS  RECOMMENDED  at  heads  of  chapters,  to  which 
add  as  follows: 

CHAPTER 

I.  For  text,  consult  Maspero,  The  Dawn  of  Civilization; 
The  Struggle  of  the  Nations;  The  Passing  of  the 
Empire. 

von     Bissing-Bruckmann,     Denkmaler     Aegyptischer 
Sculptur. 

VIII.  Bernoulli,  Griechische  Ikonographie. 
Kekule,  Die  griechische  Skulptur. 
P.  Gardner,  Sculptured  Tombs  of  Hellas;    von  Mach, 
Greek  Sculpture. 

IX.  Joubin,  La  sculpture  grecque  entre  les  guerres  mediques 

et  I'epoque  de  Pericles. 
Lechat,  La  sculpture  attique  avant  Phidias. 
Perrot  and  Chipiez,  La  Greet  Archalque,  La  Sculpture. 

X.  Mahler,  Polyklet  und  seine  Schule. 
Murray,  Sculptures  of  the  Parthenon. 

XI.  Collignon,  Scopas  et  Praxitele;  Lysippe. 
Klein,  Praxiteles;  Praxitelische  Studien. 

XIII.  Cicorius,  Die  Reliefs  der  Traianssaule. 
Courbaud,  Le  bas-relief  romain. 

Petersen  und  Domaszewski,  Die  Marcussaule  zu  Rom. 
Strong,  Roman  Sculpture  from  Augustus  to  Constantine. 
Wickhoff,  Roman  Art. 

XIV.  Cattaneo,  L 'architecture  en  Italic  du  VIe  au  XIe  siecle. 
Graeven,  Fruhchristliche  und  mittelalterliche  Elfenbein- 

werke. 

Lowrie,  Monuments  of  the  Early  Church. 
Michel,  Histoire    de   Vart   depuis    les  premiers  temps 

Chretiens  jusqu'd  nos  jours,  Vol.  I. 
Venturi,  Storia  dell'  arte  italiana,  Vol.  I. 
Wiegand,  Das  altchristliche  Hauptportal  an  der  Kirche 

der  hi.  Sabina  zu  Rom. 


SPECIAL   BIBLIOGRAPHIES.  xvii 

CHAPTER 

XV.  Bertaux,  L'art  dans  Vltalie  meridionale. 

Frothingham,  Monuments  of  Christian  Rome. 
Reymond,  La  sculpture  florentine. 
Sauerlandt,  Ueber  die  Bildwerke  des  Giovanni  Pisano. 
Supino,  L'arte  pisana. 

Zimmermann,  Oberitalische  Plastik   im  friihen   und 
hohen  Mittelalter. 

XVI.  Kleinclausz,  Claus  Sluter. 

Male,  L'Art  religieux  du  XIII*  siecle  en  France;  L'art 

religieux  de  la  fin  du  May  en  Age  en  France. 
Marcou,  Album  du  Musee  de  sculpture  comparee. 
Michel,  Histoire  de-l'art  Vols.  II-III. 
Vitry  et  Briere,  Sculpture  fran^aise  du  Moyen  Age. 

XVII.  Hasak,   Geschichte  der  deutschen  Bildhauerkunst  im 

XIIIte*  Jahrhundert. 

Miinzerberger  und  Beissel,  Zur  Kenntniss  und  Wiir- 
digung  der  mittelalterlichen  Altar e  Deutschlands. 

XVIII.  Bode,  Florentine  Sculptors  of  the  Renaissance. 

Cruttwell,  Luca  and  Andrea  della  Robbia;   Antonio 

Pollaiuolo;  Verrocchio. 
Makowsy,  Verrocchio. 

XIX.  Angeli,  Mino  da  Fiesole. 
XX.  Cornelius,  Jacopo  della  Quercia. 

XXI.  Reymond,  Michelange;  Le  Bernin. 
Supino,  L'arte  di  Benvenuto  Cellini. 

XXII.  Koechlin  et  Marquet  de  Vasselot,  La  Sculpture  a 
Troyes  et  dans  la  Champagne  meridionale  au  XVI* 
siecle. 
Vitry,  Michel  Colombe. 

XXIII.  Haendcke,    Studien    zur    Geschichte    der    spanischen 
Plastik. 

XXVII.  Caffin,  American  Masters  of  Sculpture. 

Ta.lt,  The  History  of  American  Sculpture. 


ADDRESSES  FOR  PHOTOGRAPHS  OF  SCULPTURE. 

EGYPT Administration  of  Gizeh  Museum,  Cairo. 

Sebah,  Cairo. 

FRANCE Braun,  Clement  &   Cie,  n  Boulevard 

des  Italiens,  Paris. 

Giraudon,  9  Rue  des  Beaux-Arts,  Paris. 
J.  Levy  &  Cie  (lantern  slides),  Boulevard 

de  Sevastopol,  Paris. 
Neuerdein,  52  Avenue  de  Breteuil,  Paris. 
Trocadero  Museum,  Paris. 
Vasse  (monuments  historiques) ,  igQuai 

Malaquais,  Paris. 

GERMANY Amsler    &     Ruthardt,     29    Behrenstr., 

Berlin. 
Berlin  Photographic  Co.,  Schlossfreiheit, 

Berlin. 

Bruckmann,  21  Kaulbachstr.,  Munich. 
Franz      Hanfstaengl,       Maximilianstr  , 

Munich. 

J.  Lowy,  i  Weihburggasse,  Vienna. 
Nohring,  67  Breitestr.,  Liibeck. 
Seemann,  Leipzig. 

GREECE Central  Direktion  des  Archaeologischen 

Instituts,  Corneliusstr.  II,  Berlin. 
English  Photograph  Co.,  Athens. 
Rhomaides,  Athens. 
Sebah,  Constantinople. 


ADDRESSES  FOR   PHOTOGRAPHS  OF  SCULPTURE.    XIX 

Scull  (mythological  sculpture),  Porter  & 
Coates,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

C.  A.  Young,  Columbia  College,  New 
York. 

GREAT  BRITAIN..  .  .Autotype  Co.,  74  New  Oxford  St.,  Lon- 
don. 

Bedford,  Lemere  &  Co.,  147,  Strand, 
London. 

Berlin  Photographic  Co.,  New  Bond 
St.,  London. 

Clark  &  Davies,  Museum  St.,  London. 

W.  A.  Mansell,  405,  Oxford  St.,  London. 

Photograph  Department  of  the  Victoria 
and  Albert  Museum,  London. 

Spooner,  379,  Strand,  London. 

Stereoscopic  and  Photographic  Co.,io6, 
Regent  Street,  London. 

G.  W.  Wilson  &  Co.,  Aberdeen,  Scot- 
land. 

ITALY Alinari,  20  Via  Tornabuoni,  Florence 

Anderson,  85  Piazza,  di  Spagna,  Rome- 
Brogi,  i  Via  Tornabuoni,  Florence. 
Ix>mbardi,  Sie.ia. 

Montabone,  7  Piazza  Durini,  Milan. 
Moscioni,  10  Via  Condotti,  Rome. 
Naya,  75  Piazza  S.  Marco,  Venice. 
Noack,  i  Vico  del  Filo,  Genoa. 
Poppi,  19  Via  d'  Azeglio,  Bologna, 
Rossi,  Milan. 
Sommer,  Naples. 


XX  ADDRESSES  FOR  PLASTER  CASTS. 

UNITED  STATES Berlin  Photographic  Co.,i4East  23d  St., 

New  York. 
Braun,  Clement  &  Co.,  256  Fifth  Ave., 

New  York. 

C.H.  Dunton,  136  Boylston  St.,  Boston. 
Fr.  Hanfstaengl,  28  West  38th  St.,  New 

York. 

Hegger,  37  East  28th  St.,  New  York. 
T.   H.   McAllister   (lantern  slides),  49 

Nassau  St.,  New  York. 
Soule  Photo.  Co.,  338  Washington  St., 

Boston. 


ADDRESSES   FOR   PLASTER   CASTS. 

Plaster  casts  may  be  obtained  at  the  following  addresses : 
ATHENS, P.  Kawadias,  Central  Museum. 

BERLIN Sekretar  d.  General  Verwaltung,  For- 

merei  der  Koniglichen  Museen. 
(General.) 

G.  Eichler,  17  Jagerstrasse.  (Tanagra 
figurines  and  general.) 

GebrUder  Micheli,  76*  Unter  den  Lin- 
den. (Modern.) 

BOSTON Museum  of  Fine  Arts. 

P.  P.  Caproni,  12  Province  Court. 
(Ancient  and  modern.) 

CAIRO Atelier  de  Moulage.     Musee  du  Caire. 

(Egyptian.) 
Jean  Je"ladon.     (Arabic.) 


ADDRESSES   FOR    PLASTER   CASTS.  XXI 

CHRISTIANIA Guidotti  Brothers,  O'Rugh  Museum. 

COLOGNE August  Gerber. 

COPENHAGEN V.  Steffensen,  Royal  Museum. 

DRESDEN Formerei  des  Kgl.  Albertinums.     (An- 
cient and  modern.) 

FLORENCE Oronzio    Lelli,  95    Corso   de'    Tintori. 

(Renaissance.) 

LONDON D.   Brucciani,   40   Russell    St.,    Covent 

Garden.     (British    Museum   sculpture 
and  general.) 

Arundel  Society,  19  St.  James  St.,  S.  W. 
(Ivories.) 

Elkington     &     Co.,      22     Regent     St. 
(Ivories  and  metals.) 

Aug.  Ready,  Great  Russell  St.     (Ivories 

and  gems.) 

Victoria  and  Albert  Museum.     (Medi- 
aeval, Renaissance.) 

MILAN Fxkmardo    Pierotti,    3    Via    Filangieri. 

(Renaissance.) 

MUNICH Joseph      Kreittmayer,      12     Hildegard- 

strasse.       (German     Mediaeval      and 
Renaissance.) 
G.  Geiler,  Formator  an  der  Kgl.  Akad. 

der  Ktlnste.     (Ancient.) 
Conservator! urn  der  Antikensammlungen 
der    Kgl.     technischen     Hochschule. 
(Ancient.) 


XXU  ADDRESSES  FOR  PLASTER   CASTS. 

NAPLES.... The  Director  of  the  Museo   Nationale. 

(Ancient.) 

NEW  YORK Metropolitan  Museum,  Central  Park. 

NUREMBERG J.  Rothermundt,  Langegasse  30.     (Ger- 
man Mediaeval  and  Renaissance.) 

PARIS Atelier  de    Moulage,   Ecole  des  Beaux 

Arts,    14   Rue   Bonaparte.       (General 
sculpture.) 

Eug.  Arrondelle,  Chef  du  Moulage, 
Pavilion  Daru,  Musee  du  Louvre. 
(Sculptures  of  the  Louvre  and  general .) 
J.  Pouzadoux  et  Fils,  45  Rue  Monsieur 
le  Prince.  (Sculptures  at  the  Troca- 
de"ro.) 

ROME Michele  Gherardi,  87  Via  Sistina. 

Cesare    Malpieri,     54  Via   del    Corso. 
(General.) 

VENICE Antonio   di    Paoli,    S.    Trovaso,    Calle 

delle  Cento  Pietre  1202. 

VIENNA Formerei  de&  K.  K.  Oesterr.     Museum 

fUr  Kunst  und  Industrie.     (General.) 


CHAPTER   I. 
EGYPTIAN   SCULPTURE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  For  illustration,  consult  the  plates 
in  Prisse  d'Avennes'  Histoire  de  I' Art  Egyptien.  Lepsius, 
Denkmdler  a  us  Aegypten  und  Nubia.  Champollion,  Monu- 
ments de  rEgypte  et  de  la  Nubie.  Mariette,  Album  photogra- 
phique  du  Muse"e  de  Boulaq.  Rosellini,  /  Monumenti  deW 
Egitto  e  della  Nubia. 

For  text,  consult  Budge,  The  Mummy.  Edwards,  Pharaohs, 
Fellahs,  and  Explorers.  Erman,  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt. 
Mariette,  Monuments  of  Upper  Egypt.  Maspero,  Egyptian 
Archeology  ;  Guide  du  Visiteur  au  Musfa  de  Boulaq ;  The 
Dawn  of  Civilization.  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  History  of  Art 
in  Ancient  Egypt.  Soldi,  La  Sculpture  Egyptienne.  Wilkin- 
son, Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians. 

PHYSICAL  AND  POLITICAL  CONDITIONS.  Ancient  Egypt  con- 
sisted of  two  principalities:  the  land  of  the  south,  or  Upper 
Egypt,  extending  from  the  city  of  Elephantine",  near  the  first 
cataract,  to  Memphis,  not  far  from  the  modern  Cairo;  and 
the  land  of  the  north,  or  Lower  Egypt,  which  stretched  from 
Memphis,  widening  with  the  mouths  of  the  Nile,  and  form- 
ing a  delta  at  the  Mediterranean.  These  two  principalities 
represented  the  consolidation  of  smaller  prehistoric  states 
or  nomes,  and  were  themselves  united  as  one  nation  under 
the  Pharaohs.  This  country  extended  along  the  fertile 
banks  of  the  winding  Nile  a  distance  of  seven  hundred  and 
thirty-one  miles,  and  it  to-day  averages  in  width  about  nine 
miles. 

The  prehistoric  tribes  probably  became  united  at  a  remote 
date  before  Menes,  after  whose  reign  it  is  customary  to  treat 


2  HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 

of  Egyptian  history  as  a  series  of  successive  dynasties.  These 
dynasties  are  sometimes  named  from  the  city  which  served  as 
the  capital,  and  sQmetimes  from  the  conquering  nation  which 
furnished  the  kings.  Historians  and  Egyptologists  differ 
widely  in  respect  to  the  dates  of 'the  earlier  dynasties,  but 
the  difference  grows  less  with  the  later  dynasties  and  disap- 
pears when  the  period  of  Greek  rule  is  reached.  The  follow- 
ing table,  based  upon  Manetho,  is  given  by  Mariette  as  an 
approximate  guide  : 


NUMBER  OK  DYNASTY. 

NAME  OF  DYNASTY. 

DURATION. 

DATE  B.C. 

Per/od.  *<™  Entire.  Mi^eEm~  Ancient  Empire. 

'  I  .. 

THINITE. 
MEMPHITE. 

ELEPHANTINE. 
MEMPHITE. 

HERACLEOPOLITE. 
THEBAN.  ) 

XOITE. 
HYKSOS,  OR  SHEPHERDS.  ) 

THEBAN. 

TANITE. 
BUBASTITE. 
TANITE. 
SAITE. 
ETHIOPIAN. 
SAITE. 
PERSIAN. 
SAITE. 
MENDESIAN. 
SEBENNYTE. 
PERSIAN. 
MACEDONIAN. 
GREEK. 
ROMAN. 

253  years. 
302 
214 
284 
248 
203 
70  days. 
142  years. 
109 
'85 
213 

453 
184 

5" 

241 
•    '74 
178 

170 
89 
6 
5° 
138 

121 

7 

21 

1 

27 
275 
411 

5004 
475i 
4449 
4235 
39Si 
37°3 
35°° 
3500 
3358 
3249 
3064 

2851 
2398 

2214 

'703 
1462 
1288 
mo 
980 
810 
721 
7iS 
665 
527 
406 
399 
378 
34° 
332 
3°5 
3° 

II  

Ill  

IV  

V  

VI  

VII  

VIII  

IX  

.  X  

'XI  

XII  

XIII.  .. 

XIV.  .. 

XV  

XVI  

XVII.  .. 

'  XVIII  

XIX.  . 

XX  

XXI.  . 

XXII    

XXIII.  ., 

XXIV  

XXV  

XXVI  

XXVII  

XXVIII  

XXIX  

XXX  

XXXI    

'  XXXII  

XXXIII  

XXXIV  

At  the  head  of  the  social  organism  stood  the  king,  or  Pha- 
raoh, an  absolute  monarch,  worshipped  as  a  divinity  after  he 
ascended  the  throne.  He  was  supreme  in  ecclesiastical  as 
well  as  civil  matters.  Below  him  were  the  several  orders  of 


EGYPTIAN   SCULPTURE. 


priests,  the  governors,  scribes,  and  other  civil  functionaries, 
with  the  generals  and  officers  of  the  army.  These  constituted 
a  privileged,  hereditary  nobility,  in  whose  hands  was  consid- 
erable power,  and  the 
ownership  of  the  soil. 
Much  that  remains  to 
us  of  the  sculptures  of 
the  Ancient  and  Middle 
Empires  is  the  result  of 
the  patronage  of  these 
classes.  Architects  and 
sculptors  were  highly 
esteemed,  and  the  vari- 
ous artisans,  musicians, 
and  commercial  traders 
had  the  same  legal  rights 
as  the  tillers  of  the  soil. 
According  to  Herodotos, 
there  were  twenty  thou- 
sand cities  in  Egypt, 
representing  a  total 
population  of  over  five 
millions,  and  there  was, 
therefore,  a  large  mass 
of  the  population  which 
could  be  turned  to  the 
construction  of  public 
works  or  to  foreign  con- 
quest. 

RELIGION.  The  relig- 
ion of  the  Egyptians 
was  somewhat  analogous  to  their  political  organization.  Many 
traces  of  a  prehistoric  fetichism  are  found,  in  which  different 
animals,  such  as  the  bull,  the  ibis,  the  crocodile,  were  the 
totems  of  different  tribes.  There  was  also  a  polytheism,  in 


FIG.  I. — THE   SHEIK-BL-BKI.EI),  OR    MAYOR   OF   Tilt! 
VILLAGE.       CAIRO    Ml'SRUM. 


4  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 

which  divinities  were  grouped  in  triads  or  enneads,  with  one 
divinity  as  supreme  and  all  powerful.  Underlying  this  was  a 
worship  of  the  powers  of  nature,  especially  of  the  sun,  moon, 
and  stars,  and  a  manifest  tendency  toward  organization  into  a 
unified  system  of  monotheism  or  pantheism. 

Intimately  connected  with  their  social  and  religious  system 
was  the  idea  of  immortality.  Each  person  in  a  measure 
reflected  the  constitution  of  the  social  fabric.  His  body  was 
presided  over  by  a  ka,  which,  like  a  Pharaoh,  ruled  the  body, 
and  was  in  form  its  ethereal  duplicate.  The  ka  remained  with 
the  mummy  in  the  tomb;  it  required  nourishment,  and  it  was 
provided  with  permanent  bodily  form  in  the  shape  of  one  or 
more  statues  of  the  deceased.  The  higher  elements  of  per- 
sonality enjoyed  greater  freedom.  The  ba,  or  soul,  wandered 
through  the  Valley  of  Shades;  the  khou,  or  intelligence, 
followed  the  gods,  while  the  ab,  or  heart,  the  kha'ibit,  or 
shadow,  and  the  ren,  or  name,  awaited  the  final  reunion, 
when  the  individual  secured  his  immortality  and  became 
a  god. 

SUBJECTS.  The  sculpture  of  the  Egyptians  was  largely  con- 
nected with  the  temple  and  the  tomb.  The  temple  was  con- 
structed as  if  it  were  the  tomb  or  eternal  dwelling-place  of  a 
divinity  whose  statue  was  concealed  within  a  succession  of 
closed  halls,  opened  to  view  only  for  a  brief  interval,  when  the 
sun  or  moon  or  particular  star  reached  a  point  on  the  horizon 
from  which  their  rays  could  shine  directly  upon  the  innermost 
shrine.  These  temple  statues  were  consulted  as  oracles,  but 
were  seldom  of  imposing  size.  The  art  of  the  sculptor  was 
also  employed  for  wall-reliefs,  capitals  of  columns,  colossal 
figures  guarding  the  pylons,  and  for  long  avenues  of  sphinxes. 
The  scenes  upon  the  temple  walls  illustrate  frequently  the  piety 
of  kings  as  well  as  their  foreign  conquests. 

The  tombs  called  for  the  most  extensive  use  of  the  sculp- 
tor's art.  Here  were  placed  portrait  statues  of  the  deceased. 
Of  this  nature  were  many  of  the  statues  of  Pharaohs,  public 


EGYPTIAN   SCULPTURE.  5 

functionaries,  and  scribes,  and  the  groups  representing  a  man 
and  his  wife.  The  walls  of  the  earlier  tombs  resemble  an 
illustrated  book  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people. 
Here  are  represented  hunting,  fishing,  and  agricultural  scenes  ; 
artistic  and  mercantile  pursuits,  such  as  the  making  of  statues, 


KIG.    2. — ROYAL   SCK1UE    IN 


or  glass,  or  metal-ware,  or  the  building  of  pyramids;  women 
at  their  domestic  duties,  or  wailing  for  the  dead  ;  boys  engaged 
in  athletic  games.  Such  reliefs  indicate  a  confident  belief  in 
the  future  as  an  untroubled  extension  of  the  present  life.  At 
a  later  period,  beginning  with  the  tombs  of  the  New  Empire, 
the  gods  appear  more  prominently  in  scenes  of  judgment; 


6  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

revealing  a  less  certain  attitude  of  mind  concerning  the  hap- 
piness of  the  future  state. 

The  sculptor's  art  also  lent  a  charm  to  the  minor  objects  of 
domestic  and  daily  use  ;  to  household  furniture  with  its  rich 
divans,  to  tables  and  chests,  and  to  all  forms  of  metal  work 
and  jewelry.  Such  objects  as  toilet  boxes,  mirrors,  and 
spoons  assumed  forms  derived  from  the  floral,  animal,  or 
human  world.  Sacred  plants,  especially  the  lotus,  were  the 
naturalistic  basis  for  a  large  and  varied  series  of  forms  which 
influenced  the  decorative  art  of  the  entire  ancient  world. 

MATERIALS,  METHODS,  AND  CONVENTIONS.  In  the  Nile  valley 
grew  the  sacred  acacia  and  the  sycamore,  which  furnished  the 
sculptor  material  for  statues  and  sarcophagi,  for  thrones  and 
other  objects  of  industrial  art.  The  hillsides  on  both  banks  of 
the  Nile,  as  far  south  as  Edfou,  furnished  a  coarse  nummulitic 
limestone,  and  beyond  Edfou  were  extensive  quarries  of  sand- 
stone, both  of  which  materials  were  employed  for  sculptural 
as  well  as  for  architectural  purposes.  Near  the  first  cataract 
may  be  still  seen  the  quarries  of  red  granite  utilized  not  only 
for  obelisks,  but  also  for  colossal  .statues,  sphinxes,  and  sarcoph- 
agi. Alabaster  was  quarried  at  the  ancient  Alabastron,  near 
the  modern  village  of  Assiout.  From  the  mountains  of  the 
Arabian  desert  and  the  Sinaitic  peninsula  came  the  basalt  and 
diorite  used  by  the  early  sculptors,  the  red  porphyry  prized 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  copper.  The  Nile  mud  was 
moulded  and  baked,  and  even  covered  with  colored  glazes, 
from  the  earliest  dynasties  of  Egyptian  history.  At  the  same 
early  period  we  find  the  Egyptian  sculptor  handling  with  skill 
various  injported  materials,  such  as  ebony,  ivory,  gold,  silver, 
and  iron. 

When  the  Egyptians  wished  to  give  permanence  to  their 
sculptures,  as,  for  example,  to  the  statues  and  sarcophagi  of 
their  Pharaohs,  they  utilized  the  hardest  material,  such  as 
basalt,  diorite,  granite.  These  materials  they  handled  with 
no  less  skill  than  they  did  wood  and  ivory  and  softer  stones. 


EGYPTIAN   SCULPTURE.  7 

The  fine  details  were  probably  executed  with  instruments  of 
flint.  Other  implements,  made  apparently  of  hardened  bronze 
or  iron,  were  the  saw  with  jewelled  teeth,  tubular  drills  of  vari- 
ous kinds,  the  pointer,  and  chisel.  Statues  of  hard  stone  were 
carefully  polished  with  crushed  sandstone  and  emery ;  those  of 
the  softer  materials  were  generally  covered  with  stucco  and 


FIG.    3. —  HVk'P 


painted,  the  coloring  being  applied  in  an  arbitrary  or  conven- 
tional manner. 

The   wall -sculptures    are    executed    in   different    modes   of 
relief : 

(1)  Bas-relief,  in  which  the  figures  project  slightly  in  front 
of  the  background. 

(2)  Sunken-relief,  in  which  the  background  projects  slightly 
in  front  of  the  figures. 


8  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

(3)  Outline-relief,   in  which  only  the  outline  of  figures  is 
chiselled. 

(4)  High-relief,  in  which  the  figures  project  strongly  from 
the  background. 

Almost  all  the  wall -sculptures  of  the  Ancient  Empire  are 
in  the  form  of  bas-relief;  sunken  and  outline  relief  are  the 
most  common  methods  during  the  New  Empire.  High-relief 
is  found  occasionally  in  tombs  of  the  Ancient  Empire,  other- 
wise it  is  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  New  Empire  and 
to  such  forms  as  Osiride  and  Hathoric  piers  and  to  wall  stat- 
ues. In  its  treatment  of  figures  in  the  round,  Egyptian  sculp- 
ture is  limited  to  a  few  forms.  There  is  the  standing  figure, 
with  left  foot  slightly  in  advance  of  the  right,  the  head  erect, 
and  the  eyes  looking  straight  forward.  Variants  are  formed  by 
changing  the  pose  of  the  arms.  In  the  seated  figures  there  is 
the  same  fixity  of  the  head,  body,  and  lower  limbs.  Beside 
these,  the  kneeling  and  squatting  attitudes  frequently  occur, 
with  little  variation.  Statues  in  the  round  usually  represented 
the  gods,  Pharaohs,  or  civic  officials,  and  were  composed  with 
special  reference  to  the  preservation  of  straight  lines.  The 
more  important  monuments  were  thus  limited  in  type  and 
pose,  but  a  whole  series  of  statues  illustrating  domestic  sub- 
jects show  freer  modes  of  composition.  Little  attention  was 
given  to  grouping.  It  was  usually  a  mere  juxtaposition  of  two 
standing  or  two  seated  statues,  or  of  one  standing  and  one 
seated  figure.  A  god  and  a  man,  or  a  husband  and  a  wife, 
were  placed  side  by  side.  In  family  groups  the  figure  of  a 
child' was  sometimes  added.  Statues  of  Isis  suckling  Horus 
formed  the  only  prominent  exception. 

Symbolism  usually  governed  the  representations  of  the  gods. 
When  portrayed  as  human  beings  they  were  distinguished  by 
emblems,  but  they  were  more  frequently  represented  as  com- 
posite creatures  with  animal  heads  on  human  bodies.  Thus, 
Horus  has  the  head  of  a  hawk ;  Anubis,  that  of  a  jackal ; 
Khnum,  a  ram;  Thoth,  an  ibis;  Sebek,  a  crocodile;  Isis,  a 


EGYPTIAN    SCULPTURE.  9 

cow;  and  Sekhet-Bast,  a  lion  or  cat.     The  same  method  of 
representation  placed  a  human  head  upon  an  animal  body  and 
formed  fantastic  combinations  of  various  creatures,  birds,  ani- 
mals, and  men. 
As   the    statues    represented    the  permanent  body  of    the 


FIG.    4. — RA-HOTEH    AND    HIS    WIFE    NEFEKT.      THIRTEENTH    DYNASTY.      CAIBO     MUSEUM. 

deceased,  so  the  relief -sculptures  reproduced  the  scenes  in 
which  his  ethereal  body  might  continue  to  move.  They  were 
not  intended  as  mere  architectural  decorations,  but  had  pri- 
marily a  recording  or  immortalizing  purpose.  They  covered 
the  outer  and  inner  walls  of  temples,  the  galleries  and  walls 
of  tombs,  without  much  regard  to  aesthetic  considerations  or 


IO  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE.' 

decorative  effect.  On  the  exterior  walls  of  temples  they  were 
often  irregularly  disposed  over  the  surface,  but  in  interiors 
they  were  arranged  in  superposed,  horizontal  rows.  They  were 
not  pictures,  but  picture-writing  in  relief,  and  were  little  more 
than  enlarged  hieroglyphs.  Such  being  their  character,  there 
was  little  stimulus  to  the  production  of  artistic  compositions. 
Relief-composition  consisted  merely  in  the  arrangement  of 
figures  in  horizontal  lines  so  as  to  record  an  event  or  depict  an 
action.  The  principal  objects  were  distinguished  from  the 
rest  by  their  size ;  thus,  gods  were  larger  than  men,  kings  than 
their  followers,  and  the  dead  than  the  living.  Subordinate 
actions  were  juxtaposed  in  horizontal  bands.  In  other 
respects  there  was  little  regard  for  unity  of  effect;  and 
spaces  seem  to  have  been  filled  with  figures  and  hieroglyphs 
on  the  •principle  that  decorators  abhor  a  vacuum.  In  com- 

;  •  JF  V^V  '    •  '^  •      t       ' 

positio^jif  this  kind,  constructed  like  sentences,  there  was 
little  or  no  need  of  perspective.  Scenes  were  not  represented 
as  they  appeared  within  the  field  of  vision,  but  their  individ- 
ual components  were  all  brought  to  the  plane  of  representa- 
tion, and  spread  out  like  writing.  A  man  with  head  in  pro- 
file, but  eye  en  face,  with  shoulders  in  full  front,  but  trunk 
turned  three-quarters  and  legs  in  profile,  is  not  the  picture  of 
a  man  as  he  appears  to  the  eye ;  but  as  a  symbolic  represen- 
tation of  a  man,  it  was  perfectly  clear  and  intelligible.  In 
the  same  symbolic  way  a  pond  was  indicated  by  a  rectangle, 
the  water  in  it  by  zigzag  lines,  while  the  trees  around  it  pro- 
jected from  the  four  sides  of  the  rectangle.  An  army  was 
portrayed  with  its  remoter  ranks  brought  into  the  plane  of  rep- 
resentation and  superposed  in  horizontal  lines  one  above  the 
other.  Frequently  a  row  of  individuals  projecting  from  the 
spectator  was  represented  along  a  horizontal  line,  the  nearer 
figures  partly  covering  the  remoter.  In  a  few  instances  the 
effects  of  perspective  were  suggested,  but  being  foreign  to  the 
purposes  of  Egyptian  art  they  bore  no  fruit. 

Egyptian  reliefs  were  covered  with  stucco  and. painted.    The 


EGYPTIAN   SCULPTURE. 


H 


colors  used  were  vivid  in  tone,  few  in  number,  and  durable 
in  quality.     They  were  applied  in  uniform  flat  masses,  juxta- 


HG.    5. — SETI    I.    WORSHIPPING.       EIGHTEKNTH    DYNASTY.       AHYDOS. 

posed  in  striking  contrasts.  Chiaroscuro  and  color-perspec- 
tive lay  outside  the  Egyptian  conception  of  painting.  The 
painting  of  reliefs  served  to  make  the  figures  more  distinct, 


12  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE.* 

not  more  natural.  Color  was  rarely  used  to  suggest  rotundity 
of  form,  and  was  applied  ordinarily  in  a  purely  conventional 
manner.  The  faces  of  men  were 'usually  reddish  brown,  and 
those  of  women  yellow;  but  the  gods  might  have  faces  of  any 
color.  Statues  of  wood  or  of  soft  stone  were  frequently  in 
like  manner  covered  with  stucco  and  painted. 

NOTE.  Since  this  volume  was  written,  Egyptian  chronology  has  been 
reconstructed,  and  Marriette's  tables,  published  on  p.  2,  are  no  longer 
generally  accepted.  Although  Egyptologists  are  far  from  having  reached 
a  general  agreement,  the  dates  assigned  by  Breasted  may  be  assumed  as 
a  safer  guide.  These  are  as  follows: — 

DYNASTY  DYNASTY 

I-II 3400-2980  B.C.  XIX 1350-1205  B.C. 

Ill 2980-2900,"  XX 1200-1090  " 

IV 2900-2750  "             XXI 1090-945  " 

V 2750-2625  "            XXII 945-745  " 

VI 2625-2475  "          XXIII 745-718  " 

VII-VIII 2475-2445  "          XXIV 718-712  " 

IX-X 2445-2160  "            XXV 712-663  " 

XI 2160-2000  "          XXVI 663-525  " 

XII 2000-1788  "  XXVII-XXXI. . . .  525-332  " 

xin-xvii 1788-1580  "      xxxii-xxxm . .     332-30  " 

XVIII 1580-1350    " 


CHAPTER   II. 
EGYPTIAN   SCULPTURE.— CONTINUED. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  The  books  before  mentioned ;  also, 
see  General  and  Special  Bibliographies. 

HISTORIC  DEVELOPMENT.  In  spite  of  wealth  of  materials  and 
quantity  of  production,  Egyptian  sculpture  changed  so  slowly 
that  it  is  difficult  to  trace  its  history.  From  the  very  earliest 
dynasties  we  find  a  fully  developed  art.  Sculptors  handled 
readily  the  hardest  stones  and  cast  with  much  skill  in  bronze. 
There  is  no  archaic  period  to  show  the  struggle  by  which  this 
mastery  was  reached.  Egypt  has  not  yet  enlightened  us  as  to 
a  prehistoric  art  of  her  own,  nor  is  it  proved  that  some  foreign 
nation  provided  her  with  an  art  already  in  its  prime.  What- 
ever its  origin,  the  continuity  of  Egyptian  art  during  the  his- 
toric period  is  more  marked  than  its  changes.  Nevertheless, 
the  modification  of  Egyptian  sculpture  at  different  periods 
may  be  roughly  distinguished. 

ANCIENT  EMPIRE.  The  art  of  the  Ancient  Empire  centred 
about  Memphis,  although  the  Delta,  Abydos,  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Thebes,  and  Elephantine  furnish  illustrations  of  some 
of  its  later  phases.  There  are  no  temples  remaining  from  this 
period;  the  sculptures  come  exclusively  from  tombs.  In 
character  these  Memphite  sculptures  weie  strongly  naturalistic 
when  compared  with  the  later  products  ot  Egyptian  art.  The 
portrait  statues  are  varied  and  often  striking  in  character,  and 
the  wall-pictures  depict  many  scenes  from  daily  life.  Gen- 
eralized or  typical  forms  are  not  wanting  in  the  very  earliest 
times,  as  witness  the  colossal  sphinx  at  Gizeh  and  the  statues 
of  Chephren,  builder  of  the  second  pyramid.  The  natural- 


14  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

istic  tendency  led  to  a  peculiar  treatment  of  the  eye,  found 
in  statues  of  this  period,  but  discontinued  in  later  times. 
The  pupil  was  represented  by  a  glistening  silver  nail  set  in  the 
midst  of  rock  crystal  or  enamel,  while  the  dark  eyelashes  were 
made  of  bronze.  This  treatment  was  followed  in  the  case  of 
statues  in  limestone,  wood,  and  bronze,  but  not  in  the  statues 
made  of  basaltic  rocks.  The  heads  of  these  early  statues  seem 
to  indicate  £  strongly  marked  Egyptian  type,  not  unmixed  in 
some  cases  with  negroid  and  other  foreign  races.  The  wall- 
sculptures,  and  even  the  hieroglyphs  executed  in  low-relief,  were 
finely  carved.  The  slender  type  of  the  human  form  was  not 
wanting,  but  short,  thickset,  muscular  bodies  were  more  com- 
mon. From  the  fact  that  many  middle-aged  men  and  women 
were  represented,  it  would  seem  as  if  childhood  and  old  age 
were  somehow  looked  upon  as  disappearing  in  the  future  life. 
The  faces  reflect  the  lives  of  a  peaceful,  happy  people,  to  whom 
future  life  implied  no  great  change  in  the  mode  of  existence. 

MIDDLE  EMPIRE.  The  period  called  the  Middle  Empire 
may  be  divided  into  the  first  Theban  period,  extending  from 
the  eleventh  to  the  fifteenth  dynasty,  and  the  Hyksos  period, 
from  the  fifteenth  to  the  eighteenth  dynasty.  The  centre  of 
government  had  now  shifted  from  Memphis  to  Thebes.  The 
later  period  of  Memphite  rule  and  the  first  dynasty  of  the 
Middle  Empire  seem  to  have  produced  little  sculpture  of 
monumental  value.  But  the  strong  reign  of  the  Usertesens  and 
the  Amenemhats  of  the  twelfth  dynasty  marks  a  revival  of 
Egyptian  art.  The  sculpture  represented  in  general  a  contin- 
uance of  the  art  of  Memphis,  but  there  were  already  some 
changes.  A  desire  for  colossal  statues  of  Pharaohs  began  to 
be  felt,  and  bodily  forms  were  given  with  slenderer  trunks  and 
limbs.  The  wall -sculptures  presented  subjects  similar  to  those 
of  earlier  days,  but  were  less  individual  and  natural ;  and  in 
many  cases  wall-paintings  were  substituted  for  reliefs.  The 
temple  statues  from  Karnak  of  the  twelfth  dynasty  indicate  that 
votive  offerings  of  statuary  were  not  uncommon,  the  fine  statue 


EGYPTIAN  SCULPTURE.  1 5 

of  Sebek-hotep  III.  of  the  thirteenth  dynasty,  in  the  Ixmvre. 
bearing  witness  to  a  new  departure  in  the  sculptor's  art. 


FIG.    6. — RAMESKS    II.       NINKTKKNTH    DYNASTY.      II'SAMBOUL. 

This  revival  of  art,  which  began  in  the  twelfth  and  continued 
through  the  thirteenth  dynasty,  was  checked  in  the  fourteenth 


16  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

and  fifteenth  dynasties  by  the  invasion  of  barbarous  foreign 
rulers  known  as  the  Hyksos  or  Shepherd  Kings.  The  ethno- 
logical affinities  of  these  Shepherd  Kings  is  an  unsettled  prob- 
lem, the  Shemitic  influences  which  they  introduced  being 
offset  by  their  apparently  Turanian  facial  type.  The  sculp- 
tured sphinxes  and  statues  were  still  executed  by  Egyptian 
sculptors,  but  in  the  gray  or  black  granite  of  Hammanat  or  of 
the  Sinaitic  peninsula,  instead  of  the  red  granite  of  Assouan. 
The  Hyksos  centres  of  activity  were  Tanis  and  Bubastis,  their 
influence  being  less  strongly  felt  in  Upper  Egypt.  The  most 
striking  characteristic  of  their  sculpture  was  the  non-Egyptian 
cast  of  countenance,  showing  small  eyes,  high  cheek  bones, 
heavy  masses  of  hair,  an  aquiline  nose,  a  strong  mouth  with 
shaven  upper  lip,  and  short  whiskers  and  beard. 

NEW  EMPIRE.  The  second  Theban  or  early  portion  of  the 
New  Empire  included  the  eighteenth,  nineteenth,  and  twen- 
tieth dynasties.  Egypt  now  freed  herself  from  Hyksos  rule 
and  extended  her  empire  to  Assyria,  Asia  Minor,  and  Cyprus 
in  the  east  and  north,  and  to  Nubia  and  Abyssinia  in  the 
south.  Numerous  large  temples  were  erected,  especially  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Seti  I.  and  Rameses  II.  These  furnished  a 
new  stimulus  to  the  sculptor's  art.  Colossal  temples  led  nat- 
urally to  colossal  statuary.  The  seated  statues  of  Amenophis 
III.,  at  Thebes,  are  fifty-two  feet  high,  those  of  Rameses  II., 
at  Ipsamboul,  are  seventy  feet  high,  while  the  standing  Ram- 
eses at  Tanis,  according  to  Mr.  Petrie,  stood  ninety  feet  high 
without  its  pedestal.  The  slender  proportions  of  the  human 
form  which  prevailed  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  dynasties 
were  continued  and  even  advanced,  especially  in  the  bas-reliefs 
of  the"  New  Empire.  The  primitive  simplicity  of  dress,  char- 
acteristic of  earlier  days,  was  now  replaced  by  greater  rich- 
ness in  personal  adornment,  and  elaborate  crowns  and  highly 
ornamented  garments  were  not  uncommon.  Foreign  fauna 
and  flora,  as  well  as  foreign  men  and  women,  were  represented 
more  frequently  and  in  far  greater  variety  than  in  earlier  days. 


EGYPTIAN  SCULPTURE.  I/ 

Scenes  of  warfare  and  foreign  conquest  were  portrayed,  and 
images  of  the  gods  were  now  abundant.  A  single  small  tem- 
ple at  Karnak  contained  five  hundred  and  seventy-two  statues 
of  the  goddess  Sekhet-Bast,  but  at  Tell-el-Amarna  the  heretic 


FIG.    7. — PTOLEMY    CROWNED    BY    UPPER   AND    LOWER    EGYPT.      EDFOU. 

king  Khou-en-Aten  stimulated  his  sculptors  to  break  with  tra- 
ditional themes  and  to  portray  military  reviews,  chariot  driv- 
ing, festivals,  palaces,  villas,  and  gardens. 

The  school  of    sculptors  now  established  made  itself  felt 


18  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

throughout  the  reign  of  Seti  I.  and  Rameses  II.  The  fine  heads 
of  Queen  Taia  and  Horemheb  and  the  remarkable  limestone 
reliefs  at  Seti's  temple  in  Abydos  may  be  traced  to  its  influ- 
ence;  so,  also,  the  beautiful  seated  statue  of  Rameses  II.  in 
the  Museum  of  Turin.  Royal  tombs  of  this  period  main- 
tained the  traditional  excellence  of  relief  sculpture,  but  the 
demand  for  carved  scenes  upon  the  outer  walls  of  temples  was 
probably  too  great  for  the  supply  of  sculptors.  At  all  events, 
we  find  here  poverty  of  invention  in  the  subjects  and  haste  in 
the  execution.  After  the  brilliant  reign  of  Rameses  II.  Egypt 
lost  much  of  her  military  spirit,  the  country  was  divided,  and 
the  decadence  of  art  began.  This  was  a  gradual  decline, 
with  here  and  there  an  upward  struggle,  as  shown,  for  instance, 
in  the  reliefs  of  the  twentieth  dynasty  at  Medinet-Abou. 

During  the  later  portion  of  the  New  Empire,  from  the 
twenty-first  to  the  thirty-second  dynasty,  the  power  of  Egypt 
was  broken.  She  yielded  now  to  the  Ethiopians,  to  the  Assyri- 
ans, and  once  and  again  to  the  Persians.  Her  seat  of  empire 
shifted  to  Tanis,  to  Bubastis,  to  Mendes,  to  Sebennytos,  and 
for  a  long  time  remained  at  Sais.  This  period  is  therefore 
characterized  as  the 

SAITE  PERIOD.  Under  such  shifting  conditions  it  was  hardly 
possible  for  art  to  flourish.  Sometimes  sculptors  turned  back 
to  Ancient-Empire  work  for  inspiration,  and  modelled  forms 
which  might  readily  be  mistaken  for  the  products  of  earlier 
days.  Under  Psammetichos  I.  of  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty 
there  was  something  of  an  artistic  revival.  He  restored  the 
temples  and  revived  the  demand  for  sculpture  and  painting. 
Sculptors  again  attacked  the  hardest  stones,  as  though  they 
would  prove  to  the  world  that  their  knowledge  of  technique 
had  not  suffered;  but  the  green-basalt  statues  of  Osiris  and 
Nephthys  and  the  Hathor-cow  supporting  a  statuette  of  the 
deceased,  in  the  museum  at  Cairo,  show  that  the  sculptors  of 
the  reign  of  Psammetichos  I.  were  possessed  of  an  artistic 
sense  which  preferred  effeminate  and  refined  to  sharp  and  vig- 


EGYPTIAN    SCULPTURE. 


orous  forms.     No  change  in  the  current  of  Egyptian  sculp- 
ture was  produced  by  the  Persian  conquest. 

GBJECO-BOMAN  PEBIOD.  When  Egypt  became  subject  to 
Macedonian  rule,  her  art  did  not  wholly 
submit  to  foreign  taste.  Ptolemaic 
temples,  though  characterized  by  cer- 
tain changes,  especially  in  the  capitals 
of  columns,  were  not  constructed  in 
Hellenic  style.  Similarly,  Ptolemaic 
statues  are  still  Egyptian.  The  suc- 
cessors of  Alexander  became  Pharaohs  ; 
they  did  not  convert  the  Egyptians  into 
Greeks.  But  the  presence  of  Greek 
cities  in  Egypt  from  the  seventh  cen- 
tury B.C.  made  it  impossible  that  Greek 
and  Egyptian  types  should  remain  for- 
ever separate.  It  was  inevitable  that 
in  certain  directions  a  Graeco-Egyptian 
style  should  arise ;  and  this  was  the 
case. 

In  architecture  even  the  Caesars  con- 
tinued the  restoration  of  temples  in 
the  Egyptian  manner,  but  in  sculpture 
they  stimulated  a  mixed  style  in  which 
the  Egyptian  is  the  retreating  and  the 
Greek  and  Roman  the  advancing  ele- 
ment. Even  Christian  civilization, 
under  Byzantine  rule,  failed  to  sub- 
ject Egyptian  art.  The  final  surrender 
was  made  in  638  A.U.  to  the  Moham- 


.  8.- SARCOPHAGUS    OF 

WTI-HAK-SI-ESE   AS  THK 

..ODUESSHATHOR.    FTOLF.- 
MAIC  PKKIOU.     BEK1.IN. 


EXTANT  MONUMENTS.  Egyptian  sculpture  may  be  best  studied  in 
Egypt  at  the  temples  of  Abydos,  Thebes,  Edfou,  Esneh,  Philce,  and 
Ipsamboul  ;  at  the  tombs  about  Memphis,  Heni-IIassan,  and  Thebes;  and 


20  HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 

especially  at  the  Museum  of  Cairo.  Important  collections  exist  in  the 
Vatican,  Rome  ;  the  Museo  Archeologico,  Florence  ;  the  Museo  Egizio, 
Turin  ;  the  Royal  Museum,  Berlin  ;  the  Louvre,  Paris  ;  the  British  Mu- 
seum, London  ;  the  Metropolitan  Museum  and  the  Historical  Society, 
New  York.  Minor  collections  may  be  seen  in  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts, 
Boston;  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  Museum,  Philadelphia;  the 
Johns  Hopkins  University,  Baltimore  ;  and  the  Field  Columbian  Museum, 
Chicago. 

NOTE.  Prehistoric  sculpture  in  Egypt  has  received  considerable  atten- 
tion in  recent  years.  The  results,  summarized  by  Capart,  in  his  Primitive 
Art  in  Egypt,  point  to  the  occupancy  of  the  Nile  Valley  by  Libyan  tribes. 
That  the  Pharaonk  invaders  came  from  Asia  would  appear  to  be  indicated 
by  the  affinities  in  style  between  the  carved  slate  palettes  of  the  first 
dynasty  and  the  monuments  of  Chaldaea.  The  general  study  of  Egyptian 
sculpture  has  been  greatly  facilitated  by  the  publication  of  von  Bissing's 
Denkmaler  Aegyptischer  Sculptur,  in  which  the  principal  monuments  in 
the  museums  of  Europe  are  finely  illustrated  and  described.  Very 
notable  additions  to  the  decorative  arts  of  ancient  Egypt  have  been 
made  through  the  systematic  excavations  of  Theodore  M.  Davis  in  the 
Valley  of  the  Kings  at  Thebes.  These  sculptures  now  enrich  the  Museum 
at  Cairo. 


CHAPTER   III. 
BABYLONIAN    SCULPTURE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  Babelon,  Manual  of  Oriental 
Antiquities.  De  Sarzec  and  Heuzey,  De'couvertes  en  Chalde'e. 
Heuzey,  Un  Palais  Chalde'en.  Loftus,  Travels  and  Researches 
in  Chaldcea  and  Susiana.  Maspero,  The  Dawn  of  Civiliza- 
tion. Menant,  Collection  de  Clercq,  Catalogue  des  Cylindres 
Orientaux ;  Recherches  sur  la  Glyptique  Orientale.  Perrot 
and  Chipiez,  History  of  Art  in  Chaldcea  and  Assyria. 
Rassam,  Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities. 
Reber,  Ueber  altchaldaische  Kunst  (in  Zeitschrift  fur  Assyrio- 
logie,  1886).  Taylor,  in  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society, 
Vol.  XV.  Ward,  Seal  Cylinders  and  Other  Oriental  Seals 
(Handbook  12,  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York). 

PHYSICAL  AND  POLITICAL  CONDITIONS.  The  earliest  centre  of 
civilization  in  Western  Asia  was  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
valley  through  which  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  take  their 
course  before  emptying  into  the  Persian  Gulf.  This  civiliza- 
tion was  that  of  Babylonia.  Its  early  history  is  not  nearly  as 
well  known  as  that  of  Egypt ;  we  cannot  yet  say  which  was  the 
more  ancient,  though  the  probabilities  seem  to  be  in  favor  of 
an  antiquity  for  the  culture  of  western  Asia  equal  to  that  of 
Egypt.  The  situation  of  Babylonia  favored  the  growth  and 
spread  of  its  influence.  The  empire  of  Elam  developed  by 
its  side  along  parallel  lines;  Assyria  was  its  heir  as  well  as  its 
rival.  Their  collective  civilization,  by  conquest  and  influence, 
moulded  the  development  of  Persia,  Syria,  Phoenicia,  Arme- 
nia, the  Kingdoms  of  the  Hittites,  of  Upper  Mesopotamia, 
and  southeastern  Asia  Minor. 

In   Babylonia  the  population  was  of    mixed    race,    partly 


22  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 

Shemitic  and  partly  non-Shemitic.  The  probability  is  that 
the  Shemites  acquired  supremacy  as  early  as  about  4000  B.C., 
and  maintained  it  with  slight  exceptions  until  the  seventeenth 
century  B.C.,  when  the  Kosseans,  or  Kassites,  from  the  eastern 
mountains  established  a  dynasty  in  Babylon.  The  earliest 
political  condition  shows  us,  not  a  united  state,  but  a  number 
of  independent  cities.  These  were  divided  into  two  groups, 
one  at  the  south  and  one  at  the  north.  The  principal  southern 
cities  were  Eridu,  the  sacred  city  nearest  to  the  sea;  Ur,  the 
largest  in  the  group ;  Larsa,  Erech,  Lagash,  Mar,  and  Nisin. 
To  the  northern  group. belong  Nippur,  Borsippa,  Babel  or 
Babylon,  Kish,  Kutha,  Agadhe,  and  Sippara. 

Native  traditions  indicate  the  cities  nearest  to  the  Persian 
Gulf  as  the  earliest  to  become  civilized  under  the  influence  of 
Ea,  the  god  of  Eridu,  the  divinity  of  the  sea  and  of  wisdom, 
half-fish  and  half-man,  who  came  up  out  of  the  waters  of  the 
gulf  to  teach  mankind  civilization.  The  two  terms,  Sumer 
and  Akkad,  served  in  Babylonian  literature  to  designate  the 
two  main  divisions  of  the  race  and  land.  Chaldaea  was  the 
most  southern  region,  and  its  name  came  into  prominence  at 
about  the  time  when  the  writers  of  the  Old  Testament  came 
into  contact  with  the  civilization  of  Babylonia.  The  name  is 
not  applicable  to  the  whole- country,  though  in  some  books  it 
is  so  used.  Under  the  heading  "  Babylonia"  we  include  the 
entire  country. 

The  parallel  lines  of  the  two  rivers  made  possible  a  great 
system  of  irrigation  by  means  of  canals  that  added  to  the 
natural  fertility  of  the  soil  and  gave  it  an  almost  fabulous  pro- 
ductivity. The  chief  energies  of  the  Babylonian  rulers  were 
directed  toward  maintaining  and  perfecting  this  system,  by 
public  works  that  had  no  equal  until  Roman  times.  But  two 
great  curses  often  sapped  agricultural  prosperity;  the  south 
and  east  winds  that  swept  over,  the  country,  overwhelming  it 
with  sands  from  the  desert,  and  the  swarms  of  locusts  that  left 
not  a  blade  standing  in  their  path.  Many  are  the  exorcisms 


BABYLONIAN   SCULPTURE. 


of  Babylonian  magic  against  these,  and  Babylonian  imagination 
could  conjure  up  nothing  more  fearful  in  the  world  of  evil  spirits. 
HISTOEY.  We  conjecture  that  before  4000  B.C.  there  was  a 
period  characterized  by 
independent  cities, 
which  developed  a  more 
or  less  autonomous  sys- 
tem of  religious  belief 
and  social  and  political 
institutions.  Apparently 
the  first  sovereign  to 
found  an  empire  was 
Sargon  I.,  of  Agadhe, 
who  lived  area  3800  B.C. 
He  was  of  S  h  e  m  i  t  i  c 
race,  and  his  reign  was 
one  of  great  military 
achievement  and  cul- 
tured advance.  His 
conquests  brought  the 
coasts  of  P  h  ce  n  i  c  i  a , 
Syria,  and  Palestine,  and 
even  Cyprus,  under  Baby- 
lonian  influence. 
Shortly  afterward  the 
regime  of  independent 
cities  appears  to  have 
returned  until  about 
2900,  when  Ur  became, 
under  King  Ur-bau,  the 
capital  of  a  dynasty  that 
held  sway  over  the 
greater  part  of  Babylo- 
nia, and  established  for 
that  city  a  preeminence 


KIG.   9. — STATUE    OK    (1UDEA    FKOM    TKLLO. 
LOUVRE. 


24  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

which  it  retained  until  about  seven  hundred  years  later, 
when  Babylon  took  its  place.  Then  came  a  period  when  the 
Elamites  under  Kudur-mabug  invaded  and  conquered  the 
country,  making  the  kinglets  of  the  Babylonian  cities  their 
viceroys. 

The  Elamite  was  driven  from  the  land  shortly  after  2200 
B.C.  by  Hammurabi,  who  founded  a  dynasty  at  Babylon,  and 
that  city  became,  for  the  first  time,  and  thenceforth  remained, 
the  political  and  religious  capital  of  the  country.  This  dy- 
nasty was  the  last  before  the  decay  of  the  country  set  in.  When, 
about  four  centuries  later,  the  Kossean  mountaineers  came 
down  from  the  east  and  overturned  the  national  rulers,  the 
harmonious  development  of  the  state  was  imperilled,  and 
shortly  afterward  the  Assyrians,  emboldened  by  this  evident 
weakness,  commenced  the  long  struggle,  first  for  indepen- 
dence and  then  for  supremacy,  which,  after  lasting  with  vary- 
ing fortunes  for  some  eight  centuries,  ended  in  the  complete 
subjugation  of  the  southern  empire  to  her  more  vigorous  and 
compact  northern  rival. 

As  a  people  the  Babylonians  typify  the  most  refined  civiliza- 
tion of  Asia.  They  were  apparently  without  crudeness  of  any 
sort.  At  all  times  literature,  art,  and  science  were  held  by 
them  in  the  highest  esteem.  They  were  by  nature  imagina- 
tive, fanciful,  symbolic  in  their  thought,  creators  and  lovers 
of  abstractions  far  more  than  the  more  matter-of-fact  Egyp- 
tians. Their  civilization  was  determined  by  their  religion, 
which  was  theocratic.  All  victories  and  all  successes  were 
attributed  to  the  gods.  Hence  the  temple  was  the  great  cen- 
tre of  each  Babylonian  city.  The  priests  were  the  most  im- 
portant class  of  citizens,  and  the  king  was  the  high-priest 
even  more  than  the  political  ruler.  This  is  what  made  sepa- 
ratism so  difficult  to  eradicate,  for  the  religion  and  the  state 
centred  around  the  special  patron  deity  in  each  city. 

RELIGION.  There  was  no  unity  in  religious  belief  during 
the  early  period  of  Babylonian  development.  On  the  one 


BABYLONIAN    SCULPTURE.  25 

hand,  there  was  a  belief  in  a  world  of  spirits,  in  which  the 
hosts  of  good  and  evil  were  opposed,  and  none  of  these  spirits 
seemed  to  stand  out  separately  from  the  mass.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  was  a  more  systematic  and  simple  belief  in  three 
great  gods :  Anu  the  heaven-god,  Bel  the  demiurge,  and  Ea 
the  god  of  the  sea  and  the  under- world.  Connected  with  them 
were  minor  deities  that  stand  in  a  relation  of  dependence. 
Each  male  deity  had  its  female  counterpart,  usually  a  mere 
reflection.  Midway  between  these  two  beliefs  stood  the  ma- 
jority of  early  cults.  The  same  gods  were  worshipped  in 
different  cities  under  different  names  and  with  varying  attri- 
butes. With  political  centralization  came  also  religious  uni- 
fication. There  were  no  longer  as  strict  racial  distinctions 
as  at  first ;  a  national  pantheon  was  made  necessary,  and  the 
principal  deities,  patrons  of  the  various  cities  that  formed  the 
empire,  were  brought  into  a  system  with  a  planetary  basis, 
made  all  the  easier  because  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  stars 
had  always  been  more  or  less  the  symbols  of  the  principal 
deities.  After  the  supreme  trio  of  Anu,  Bel,  and  Ea  come 
Shamash  the  sun-god,  Sin  the  moon-god,  Ramman  the  god  of  the 
atmosphere,  Marduk  (Jupiter),  Ishtar  (Venus),  Adar  (Saturn), 
Nergal  (Mars),  Nabu  (Mercury).  This  system  passed  over  to 
the  Assyrians,  for  whom  these  formed,  with  Asshur,  the  twelve 
great  gods. 

The  Babylonians  lived  in  a  constant  superstitious  terror. 
For  them  the  air  was  peopled  with  innumerable  armies  of 
maleficent  demons  and  beneficent  spirits  marshalled  into  many 
classes.  Their  art,  literature,  medical  practice,  astrology, 
magic,  daily  life,  and  thoughts  were  profoundly  moulded  by 
this  belief  and  constant  preoccupation.  They  recited  incan- 
tations, offered  sacrifices,  hung  up  and  buried  statuettes  and 
reliefs  in  order  to  conjure  or  combat  the  machinations  of  the 
evil  spirits. 

The  power  of  the  Babylonian  fancy  was  never  exercised  in 
a  more  original  manner  than  in  the  creation  of  sculptural 


26 


HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 


types  embodying  their  conceptions  of  these  spirits  of  differ 
ent  and  opposite  order.  "On  the  one  hand  were  the  noble 
monsters  that  defended  the  people,  the  city,  and  the  king  from 
evil,  placed  at  the  gates  of  cities,  temples,  royal  palaces,  and 
private  houses.  These  were  the  lion-headed  men,  fish-men, 
griffins,  winged  lions,  and  man-headed  winged  bulls,  creatures 
of  calm  power  or  repressed  impetuosity,  strongly  built  and 
made  to  seem  most  real,  however  hybrid  they  might  be  in  form. 
On  the  other  hand,  and  opposed  to  these,  were  the  more  lithe 

evil  demons,  ghoul-like, 
snarling  and  vicious, 
ready  to  spring  and 
swoop,  full  of  cunning 
perversity  and  malice. 

SUBJECTS.  The  Baby- 
lonian did  not  aim  at 
the  preservation  of  the 
body  of  the  deceased, 
but  burned  it.  Hence 
he  lacked  all  the  incen- 
tives that  stimulated  the 
early  Egyptian  sculptor 
to  reproduce  realistically 
the  external  form  of  the 
deceased  and  to  depict  faithfully  his  different  occupations  and 
possessions.  He  turned  therefore  at  cnce  to  religious,  historic, 
and  symbolic  subjects.  The  monuments  as  yet  discovered  have 
been  so  few  as  to  make  any  adequate  classification  or  knowl- 
edge impossible.  This  is  due,  not  to  any  lack  of  productivity 
— for  the  excavations  at  Tello  have  shown  that  sculpture  was 
popular  from  the  earliest  period — but  to  the  fact  that  no  scien- 
tific excavations  in  Babylonia  have  been  undertaken  until  the 
present  decade. 

It  was  therefore  not  the  tomb,  but  the  temple  and  the  pal- 
ace, that  were  the  home  of  early  sculpture.     The  form  of  the 


FIG.  10. — HEAD  WITH  TURBAN  FROM  TELLI 
LOUVRE. 


BABYLONIAN   SCULPTURE,  2/ 

Babylonian  temple  was  peculiarly  suited  to  the  natural  con- 
formation of  the  land.  It  arose  from  a  wide  platform  in  the 
form  of  a  great  stepped  pyramidal  mound.  In  the  courts 
around  its  base  were  minor  sanctuaries,  while  the  great  god 
dwelt  in  the  higher  structure.  The  pyramidal  form  seems  to 
have  been  determined  by  their  idea  of  the  form  of  the  uni- 
verse. The  sky  was  a  great  metal  dome,  resting  on  a  circulai 
base ;  within  it,  at  the  bottom,  rose  the  earth,  washed  by  water 
that  divided  it  from  the  base  of  the  heavens,  while  at  the  east 
and  west  were  the  gates  of  the  sun.  The  earth  itself  rose 
under  this  dome  in  the  form  of  a  stepped  pyramid. 

In  connection  with  the  main  temple  and  its  satellites  there 
usually  arose  a  royal  palace  of  considerable  extent,  with  three 
divisions:  (i)  for  the  king  and  state  ceremonies;  (2)  for  the 
harem  ;  (3)  for  the  dependencies.  In  them  the  mass  of  sculp- 
ture was  placed.  Under  the  thresholds  were  the  "  teraphim," 
or  small  images  of  metal  or  terracotta,  to  frighten  away  the 
evil  spirits  :  at  the  gateways  stood  the  protecting  genii  :  in  the 
courts  were  erected  the  triumphal  and  commemorative  carved 
stelae  and  the  royal  statues:  in  the  temple-cellas  were  the 
figures  of  the  gods.  Several  classes  of  subjects  can  be  distin- 
guished. 

First,  the  representations  of  the  gods  in  relief  and  in  the 
round,  which  were  far  more  common  in  Babylonian  than 
they  were  in  the  later  Assyrian  sculpture.  There  were  many 
small  figures  of  the  gods  in  terracotta,  buried  in  the  ground, 
and  others  in  bronze  ending  in  spikes,  stuck  in  the  ground — 
to  ward  off  evil.  The  gods  were  also  carved  on  reliefs  used 
for  wall  decoration  or  cut  on  the  faces  of  commemorative 
steles,  and  sometimes  appeared  in  the  form  of  statues  which 
were  placed  in  the  inner  sanctuaries.  Miniature  reproductions 
of  the  statues  and  reliefs  of  the  gods  can  be  studied  in  great 
numbers  in  the  cut  seals  and  cylinders. 

In  a  second  series  of  subjects  the  gods  were  no  longer  alone, 
but  were  represented  in  relief,  receiving  the  sacrifices,  the 


28  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

offerings,  or  merely  the  homage  of  their  worshippers.  Often 
each  god  was  accompanied  by  his  goddess,  and  the  worship- 
pers were  shown  as  being  brought  forward  by  the  priest. 

Related  to  these  scenes  were  a  series  of  mythological  or 
legendary  subjects  from  the  histories  of  gods  and  heroes.  The 
greatest  favorites  among  these  last  were  the  combat  of  Mero- 
dach  with  the  powers  of  chaos,  which  ended  in  the  creation 
of  the  world,  the  legends  of  Ishtar,  the  Babylonian  Venus, 
and  the  adventures  of  Izdubar,  or,  as  his  name  is  now  read, 
Gilgames,  the  prototype  of  Herakles  and  the  beau-ideal  of 
Babylonian  heroism. 

At  the  very  outset  the  Babylonian  sculptor  created  also  a 
purely  historical  class  of  compositions,  in  which  the  king  was 
either  represented  at  peace,  surrounded  by  his  court,  or  at  war, 
fighting,  overthrowing  and  executing  his  enemies,  burying  his 
dead,  and  offering  thank-sacrifices  to  his  gods.  There  are 
traces,  also,  of  genre  scenes  showing  the  labors  and  amuse- 
ments of  daily  life,  such  as  husbandry  and  music.  And  then 
came  those  fantastic  creations  of  good  and  evil  spirits  which, 
in  conception  and  technical  conventions,  stand  quite  apart. 

Of  ail  these  works  of  sculpture  the  statues  of  the  divinities 
placed  in  the  tompleb  were  the  most  sacred  possessions  of  the 
city.  They  were  the  palladium,  to  be  carefully  hidden  or 
carried  away  from  the  enemy.  When  taken  they  were  prized  by 
the  captors  as  the  greatest  trophy  of  the  victory.  There  are 
many  cuneiform  texts  attesting  this.  The  memory  of  such 
sculptures  was  handed  down  for  centuries.  An  instance  is  the 
statue  carried  back-from  Susa  to  Nineveh  by  Asbur-bani-pal,  who 
notes  that  thirteen  hundred  years  before  it  had  been  carried 
away  from  Assyria  by  the  Elamite  conquerors  (circa  2200 
B.C.). 

TECHNICAL  METHODS  AND  CONVENTIONS.  Stone,  terracotta, 
bronze,  and  rare  stones  were  employed  by  the  earliest  Babylo- 
nian artists  with  whom  we  are  acquainted.  In  the  absence  of 
home  quarries,  the  stone  was  brought  not  from  the  mountains 


BABYLONIAN   SCULPTURE. 


29 


which,  at  a  later  period,  provided  the  Assyrians  with  the  soft 
and  fine  limestone  and  alabaster  slabs,  but  it  came  by  sea, 
apparently,  from  quarries  in  the  land  of  "  Magan."  The 
favorite  quality  of  stone  employed  for  large  statuary  was  a 
variety  of  diorite,  almost  as  hard  as  granite  or  porphyry,  and 
similar  to  that  used  by  the  Egyptian  sculptors  of  the  Ancient 
Empire.  The  mechanical  difficulties  of  so  obdurate  a  mate- 
rial prevented  any  such  lavish  display  as  was  made  by  the  Assyr- 
ian artists  in  decorating  with  rows  of  reliefs  all  their  principal 
halls.  Softer  stones  were  employed  for  delicate  work  in 
relief  in  smaller  sculptures,  and  in  the  time  of  Naramsin  (circa 


KIG.    II. — IMPRESSION    FROM    A    BABYLONIAN    CYLINDER.       BERLIN. 

3750  B.C.)  the  material  was  worked  with  matchless  fineness. 
In  bronze-work  future  discoveries  will  doubtless  show  that 
hammered  work  preceded  casting.  At  present,  however,  fig- 
ures of  cast  bronze  are  found  among  the  earliest  works  in  the 
reign  of  Ur-Nina  of  Lagash,  probably  before  4000  B.C.  Hith- 
erto, no  reliefs  in  bronze  have  come  to  light.  It  is  to  be  sup- 
posed that  ivory,  so  great  a  favorite  with  the  Assyrians,  was  not 
neglected  by  Babylonian  artists,  but  no  works  in  this  mate- 
rial have  yet  been  found.  The  long,  flat  plain  of  the  Tigris- 
Euphrates  was  not  diversified  by  any  forests  that  could  afford 
a  convenient  supply  of  timber  for  purposes  of  sculpture,  and 
probably  for  this  reason  wooden  statues  appear  hardly  to  have 


30  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

existed.  It  was  natural  that  terracotta  should  be  a  favorite 
material  for  the  sculptor,  but  it  appears  to  have  been  used  only 
for  small  figures,  and  not  for  work  entirely  in  the  round.  The 
figurines  were  cast  in  a  mould,  and  not  executed  or  even  fin- 
ished by  hand.  No  trace  of  polychromy  has  been  found, 
though  there  is  every  reason  to  suppose  the  Babylonians  em- 
ployed it  in  connection  with  their  reliefs. 

In  the  earliest  monuments,  like  those  of  Ur-Ninaof  Lagash, 
the  workmanship  is  extremely  crude,  the  relief  low,  the  out- 
lines poor.  At  this  early  date  the  names  of  the  persons  were 
written  on  or  beside  the  reliefs.  The  features,  such  as  nose, 
eyes,  and  ears,  were  of  immense  size.  As  early,  however,  as  the 
time  of  Sargon  (3800  B.  c.)  the  sculptors  were  in  possession  of 
all  their  technical  skill,  and  the  art  then  developed  its  perma- 
nent characteristics. 

The  conventional  attitude  of  the  figures  in  relief  was  to 
show  the  head  in  profile,  the  shoulders  partly  or  entirely  in 
front  view,  and  the  lower  limbs  again  in  profile.  The  shoul- 
ders were  not  always  as  absolutely  equilateral  as  in  Egypt,  nor 
were  they  as  frankly  profilized  as  in  Assyria.  Quite  often  a 
front  view  of  the  face  was  given.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that 
the  full  face  of  the  national  hero,  Gilgames,  was  quite  gener- 
ally given,  perhaps  so  as  to  show  more  clearly  his  lion-like 
lineaments  and  mane-like  hair.  While  the  Assyrians  seldom 
allowed  themselves  to  represent  the  nude  body,  the  Babylo- 
nians had  no  such  scruple  :  Ishtar  and  Belit,  Gilgames,  and 
Heabani,  the  various  good  and  evil  spirits,  were  some  of  the 
types  usually  undraped.  The  bodies  of  the  slain  in  battle  were 
also  shown  undraped.  The  wonderful  skill  shown  in  anatom- 
ical drawing  in  some  of  the  earlier  gems  proves  that  the  Baby- 
lonians excelled  all  artists  in  this  respect  until  surpassed  by 
the  Greeks  at  the  close  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.  In  some  of 
the  Tello  sculptures  there  is  shown  a  talent  for  realistic  por- 
traiture in  face  and  body  that  was  always  foreign  to  Assyria. 

The  drapery  was  given  in  a  simple  and  interesting  fashion. 


BABYLONIAN  SCULPTURE.  31 

The  garment  of  the  Babylonians  was  a  woollen  mantle  with  a 
shawl-like  fringe  called  kaunakes,  which  was  wound  around 
the  figure  many  times  and  draped  over  one  shoulder,  leaving 
the  other  shoulder  and  arm  bare.  It  is  this  peculiarity  which 
makes  the  robes  of  priests  and  divinities  appear  like  pleated 
skirts.  And  this  use  of  heavy  woollen  stuffs  concealed  the 
figure  far  more  effectually  than  the  gauze-like  garments  of  the 
Egyptians,  and  probably  accounts  for  a  more  rigid  figure  in 
Babylonian  art  than  in  Egyptian  art.  There  is  no  attempt  at 
perspective,  or  at  representing  figures  on  more  than  one  plane. 
The  reliefs  are  arranged  in  superposed  bands,  sometimes  giving 
successive  stages  of  one  action. 

The  Babylonians  were  decidedly  more  anthropomorphic  than 
the  Egyptians,  both  in  their  ideas  and  in  their  representations 
of  the  gods.  One  god  was  not  distinguished  from  another  by 
having  the  head  of  a  hawk,  a  dog,  a  cat,  or  a  jackal  on  a 
human  body,  but  each  god  had  his  full  complement  of  human 
form  and  was  distinguished  by  some  emblem  carried  in  the 
hand  (as  was  later  the  case  in  Greek  art)  or  placed  near  the 
figure.  The  emblem  of  Shamash  was  the  sun,  of  Sin  the  moon, 
of  Ramman  the  thunderbolt,  of  Ishtarthe  star  Venus,  of  Ea  the 
serpent,  of  Ninip  the  bull.  Where  animals  were  used  as 
symbols  they  were  commonly  placed  under  the  feet  of  their 
deity  and  were  often  astronomically  related  to  them.  Some- 
times, especially  in  later  Babylonian  sculpture,  the  symbols 
were  employed  alone,  without  the  divine  figures,  and  were  set 
up  for  worship  or  carved  on  boundary  stones  to  terrify  the 
evil-doer.  There  are,  however,  some  traces  of  the  existence 
of  representations  of  the  gods  with  heads  and  other  parts  of 
animals,  as  in  Egypt,  though  such  forms  were  not  artistically 
welcomed. 

HISTORIC  DEVELOPMENT.  Five  periods  may  be  distin- 
guished : 

(i)  The  PRIMITIVE  PERIOD,  lasting  until  shortly  after  4000 
B.C. 


32  HISTORY  OF   SCULPTURE. 

(2)  The  ARCHAIC,  extending  from  before  the  time  of  Sargon 
I.  (3800  B.C.)  to  Ur-Gur  of  Ur  (2900  B.C.). 

(3)  The  DEVELOPED,  ending  with  the  advent  of  the  Kossean 
or  Kassite  dynasty  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

(4)  The  DECADENCE,  ending  with  the  completion  of  the 
Assyrian  conquest  in  the  ninth  century. 


FIG.    12. — TWO    DIVINITIES    ESCORTING    A    KING.       BERLIN. 

(5)  The  ARCHAISTIC  REVIVAL,  during  the  century  covered 
by  the  period  of  the  Neo-Babylonian  empire  founded  by  Nabo- 
polassar  and  Nebuchadnezzar  and  ended  by  the  conquest  of 
Cyrus. 

PRIMITIVE  PERIOD.  The  earliest  works  yet  known  are  in 
low  relief  and  belong  to  a  period  apparently  earlier  than  4000 


BABYLONIAN    SCULPTURE.  33 

B.C.,  though  how  much  earlier  we  cannot  yet  assert.  The 
style  is  crude  and  heavy,  with  weak  outlines  and  details 
marked  always  with  scratched  lines.  Several  works  of  this 
class  have  been  found  at  Tello,  the  ancient  Lagash.  Of  a 
style'  somewhat  less  crude  are  three  naive  plaques  of  King 
Ur-Nina  of  Lagash  in  which  the  details  are  no  longer  scratched 
but  carved. 

ARCHAIC  PERIOD.  Toward  4000  B.C.  a  great  advance  appears 
to  have  been  made,  for  the  monuments  inscribed  with  the 
names  of  Sargon  I.  (3800)  and  his  son  Naramsin  prove  that 
the  Babylonian  sculptors  had  attained  to  a  high  degree  of 
artistic  perfection.  We  may  place  at  the  beginning  of  this 
period  the  monuments  of  King  Eannadu  of  Lagash,  whose 
"  Stele  of  the  Vultures"  is  so  dramatic  and  forceful  in  con- 
ception. Toward  the  close  of  this,  the  epic  period,  should  be 
placed  the  monuments  of  Sargon  and  Naramsin,  for  they 
show,  together  with  strength  and  simplicity,  that  union  of  deli- 
cacy and  refined  treatment  of  detail  which  became  the  char- 
acteristic of  the  succeeding  period. 

DEVELOPED  PERIOD.  In  the  few  pieces  of  this  period  that 
have  been  found  there  is  an  exquisite  refinement  that  antici- 
pates the  style  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty  in  Egypt  and  makes 
it  possible  to  gain  a  clear  idea  of  the  details  of  costume  and 
decoration.  This  was  also  the  period  of  monumental  sculpture 
in  connection  with  a  great  development  of  temple  and  palace 
architecture.  The  large  statues  of  Gudea  found  at  Lagash 
have  the  merits  and  the  defects  of  an  art  whose  greatest  suc- 
cesses were  attained  in  gem-cutting  and  minute  stone  and 
metal  sculpture.  This  developed  style  was  probably  that  of 
the  schools  of  Ur,  Erech,  and  other  cities  during  the  reigns  of 
the  kings  of  Ur,  Ur-gur  and  his  son  Dunghi  (circa  2850),  and 
also  under  the  Babylonian  dynasty  of  Hammurabi.  It  is  nat- 
ural to  suppose  that  it  ceased  with  the  advent  of  the  Kossean 
invaders  in  the  seventeenth  century.  At  all  events,  we  find 
proof  that  shortly  after  their  advent  Babylonian  sculpture 
3 


34  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

declined.  It  was  during  this  developed  period  that  we  may 
place  the  bulk  of  Babylonian  gem-cutting,  though  it  did  not 
surpass  in  perfection  the  developed  gem-cutting  of  the  Sargon 
period. 

DECADENCE.  Sculpture  between  1600  and  800  had  lost  in 
vitality  and  in  strength.  Apparently  it  was  no  longer  much 
used  in  monumental  works  or  works  in  the  round,  but  mainly 
for  miniature  carvings  in  low  relief.  The  sacred  relief  of  the 
temple  of  the  Sun-god  at  Sippara,  the  royal  stele  of  King 
Marduk-iddin-akhi,  and  the  numerous  boundary  stones  and 
reliefs  now  in  the  British  Museum,  show  great  care  in  the 
workmanship,  and  an  elaborate  and  faithful  reproduction  of 
detail.  The  difference  between  the  Babylonian  sculpture  of  the 
period  of  decadence  and  contemporary  Assyrian  sculpture  can 
be  appreciated  by  a  comparison  between  any  Assyrian  relief  of 
the  time  of  Assur-nazir-pal  and  the  interesting  small  slab  from 
the  temple  of  Shamash  at  Sippara.  Both  were  executed  in  the 
first  half  of  the  ninth  century. 

EEVIVAL.  The  last  period  of  Babylonian  art  is  still  as 
obscure  in  history  as  the  earliest.  From  the  numerous  inscrip- 
tions we  judge  that  the  dominant  idea  of  Nabopolassar  and 
Nebuchadnezzar  was  a  return  to  the  traditions  of  early  Baby- 
lonia, and  this  was  broken,  first  by  the  Kosseans  and  then  by 
the  Assyrians.  Everywhere  their  restoration  of  the  temples 
erected  by  such  early  kings  as  Hammurabi  (2200),  Ur-gur 
(2900),  and  Naramsin  (3750)  is  praised  as  being  exactly  in 
the  style  of  the  old  work.  The  seals  and  cylinders  show  that 
the  art  was  then,  in  a  sense,  archaistic,  in  the  same  way  as  the 
sculpture  of  Augustus  was  in  one  of  its  phases  a  revival  of 
the  archaic  Greek  style  of  the  pre-Pheidian  period. 

EXTANT  MONUMENTS.  The  principal  monuments  thus  far  known  are 
those  unearthed  at  Tello,  the  ancient  Lagash,  by  the  French  consul,  M. 
de  Sarzec.  Almost  all  of  these,  including  the  statues  of  Gudea  and  the  stele 
of  the  Vultures,  were  taken  to  the  Museum  of  the  Louvre  (Paris) :  some 
pieces  recently  found  have  gone  to  Constantinople.  The  Museum  of 


BABYLONIAN   SCULPTURE.  35 

Constantinople  has  a  number  of  other  Babylonian  sculptures.  The  British 
Museum  has  a  fine  collection  of  small  works  illustrating  the  later  period, 
principally  boundary  stones  and  slabs,  carved  with  symbols  of  the  gods 
and  astronomical  symbols,  scenes  of  adoration,  etc.  The  two  most  inter- 
esting pieces  are  the  small  sacred  relief  of  the  temple  of  Shamash  at  Sip- 
para  and  the  royal  stele  of  King  Marduk-iddin-akhi. 

Some  idea  of  Babylonian  sculpture  may  be  gathered  from  the  collections 
of  Babylonian  carved  gems.  The  most  important  of  these  are  in  (i)  the 
Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York  ;  (2)  the  British  Museum  ;  (3)  the  col- 
lection of  M.  de  Clercq,  in  Paris  ;  (4)  the  Museum  of  the  Louvre,  Paris  ; 
(5)  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris. 


CHAPTER   IV. 
ASSYRIAN    SCULPTURE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  For  illustrations,  consult  Botta  et 
Flandin,  Monuments  de  Ninive.  Layard,  Monuments  of  Nine- 
veh. Pinches,  The  Gates  of  Balawat.  Place,  Ninive  et  f  As- 
sy rie.  The  British  Museum  series  of  photographs  of  sculpture. 

For  text :  Babelon,  Manual  of  Oriental  Antiquities.  Layard, 
Nineveh  and  its  Remains.  Merrill,  in  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  April, 
1875.  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  History  of  Art  in  Chaldcea  and 
Assyria.  George  Smith,  Assyrian  Discoveries. 

PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS,  HISTOEY,  RELIGION.  During  the  second 
millennium  B.C.,  a  country  had  been  developing  on  the  north- 
ern boundary  of  Babylonia  which,  after  being  the  dependent 
and  then  the  rival,  finally  became  the  conqueror  of  the  older 
empire.  This  was  Assyria.  The  country  was  a  narrow,  insig- 
nificant strip  of  land,  hardly  sixty  miles  in  width,  between  the 
Tigris  and  the  mountains.  Its  inhabitants  were  a  hardy  and 
vigorous  race  who  made  up  in  unity  what  they  lacked  in  num- 
bers. They  were  not  of  mixed  race,  like  the  Babylonians,  but 
were  pure  Shemites.  Not  until  the  very  close  of  their  history 
do  they  show  signs  of  being  contaminated  by  the  luxurious  life 
of  the  Babylonians.  In  religion  they  worshipped  Asshur  as 
supreme  god,  and  Ishtar  was  their  goddess ;  but  they  followed 
the  example  of  the  Babylonians,  and,  besides  their  special 
patrons,  adopted  the  official  Babylonian  mythology  with  its 
twelve  great  deities. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  B.C.  the  rulers  of  Assyria  first 
took  the  title  of  kings ;  and  in  the  fifteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries  they  were  in  frequent  conflict  with  the  Babylonian 


ASSYRIAN   SCULPTURE. 


37 


kings.  The  period  of  conquest  did  not  begin,  however,  until 
the  time  of  Tiglath-pileser  I.  in  the  twelfth  century,  to  be 
renewed  on  an  even  grander  scale  by  Assur-nazir-pal  in  the 
ninth  century,  though  between  the  times  of  these  two  great 


FIG.    13. — ASSUR-NAZIR-PAL   AND   ATTENDANT.      BRITISH    MUSEUM. 

monarchs  the  Assyrian  empire  had  relost  nearly  all  its  accre- 
tions. From  Assur-nazir-pal 's  reign  until  the  fall  of  Assyria 
two  and  a  half  centuries  later,  there  was  an  uninterrupted 
course  of  conquests.  Armenia,  the  Hittites,  Babylonia,  Pal- 


38  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

estine,  Syria,  Phoenicia,  Egypt,  and  finally  Elam  became  sub- 
jects of  Nineveh.  The  Assyrian  kings  ruled  from  the  Persian 
Gulf  to  Asia  Minor.  Nineveh  became  the  commercial  and 
artistic  as  well  as  the  political  capital  of  the  entire  East ;  until 
the  unity,  so  burde'nsome  to  the  subject  races,  was  finally  burst 
asunder  by  the  Babylonians  shortly  before  600  B.C. 

The  strength  of  the  Assyrians  lay  in  their  wonderful  polit- 
ical and  social  organization,  which  enabled  them  to  establish 
securely  their  hold  upon  new  conquests.  We  know  far  more 
of  the  Assyrian  organization  than  of  the  Babylonian.  The  per- 
sonality of  the  king,  by  a  gradual  growth,  came  to  overshadow 
the  whole  land.  He,  and  not  the  priests,  was  the  direct 
intermediary  between  the  gods  and  the  country.  He  was  the 
favorite,  the  "  firstling,"  the  beloved,  of  the  gods.  His  per- 
sonality was  blazoned  forth  in  a  palace  that  was  his  very  own, 
built  for  him,  and  made  to  glorify  his  reign.  Its  inscriptions 
and  its  sculptures  were  the  official  records  of  his  deeds. 
Imprecations  were  called  down  upon  any  of  his  successors  who 
either  failed  to  keep  his  palace  in  repair  or  diverted  any  of 
its  decoration  from  its  purpose. 

No  city  in  the  Oriental  world  could  compare  with  the  Nine- 
veh of  the  Sargonid  kings  as  a  world  metropolis,  as  a  centre 
of  art,  industry,  and  commerce,  as  a  place  where  works  of  art 
were  brought  from  all  countries,  where  colonies  of  foreign 
artists  settled  and  worked,  and  where  Assyrian  art,  with  its 
clearly  defined  and  impressive  individuality,  could  exercise  an 
influence  that  would  be  spread  over  the  entire  East  and  be  car- 
ried by  the  Phoenicians  as  far  as  the  Greek  islands. 

The  Assyrians  were  not  by  nature  a  literary  or  artistic  peo- 
ple. They  appropriated  much  from  the  older  civilization  of 
Babylonia,  upon  which  they  were  at  first  largely  dependent. 
The  Assyrian  kings  established  libraries  like  those  which  had 
existed  since  4000  B.C.  in  the  Babylonian  cities,  and  caused 
the  contents  of  the  Babylonian  libraries  to  be  copied  for  the 
use  of  the  Assyrian  people.  Thus  the  northern  race  entered 


ASSYRIAN  SCULPTURE.  40 

into  the  inheritance  of  the  southerners,  and  borrowed  from  their 
mythology,  their  literature,  and  their  art.  But,  while  this  led 
at  first  to  almost  complete  dependence,  as  soon  as  the  latent 
qualities  of  the  Assyrians  were  developed,  toward  the  twelfth 
century,  a  civilization  radically  opposed  in  many  ways  to  the 
Babylonian  resulted.  This  is  shown  very  clearly  in  the  polit- 
ical organization  of  Assyria.  For  as  strongly  as  Babylonia 
stands  for  local  government,  just  so  strongly  does  Assyria  rep- 
resent centralization.  The  difference  between  the  two  peoples 
is  shown  even  more  clearly  in  sculpture. 

SUBJECTS.  The  Assyrian  royal  palace,  more  than  the  temple, 
was  the  shrine  of  art.  Every  king  wished  to  build  at  least  one 
palace  that  should  be  a  memorial  of  his  reign  and  perpetuate 
his  name  forever.  Of  the  three  sections  into  which  the  royal 
palace  was  always  divided — state  apartments,  harem,  and  ser- 
vants' quarters — the  first  was  more  or  less  thoroughly  deco- 
rated with  sculptures  in  relief  throughout  the  main  halls  and 
corridors,  and  Place  calculates  that  the  reliefs  in  the  palace  of 
Sargon  at  Khorsabad,  if  placed  end  to  end,  would  cover  a 
distance  of  about  a  mile  and  a  half. 

In  the  temples  were  placed  images  of  the  gods.  Judging 
from  the  bas-reliefs  which  represent  soldiers  carrying  such 
images,  they  appear  to  have  been  less  than  life-size,  usually 
from  three  to  four  feet  high.  Mythological  subjects  were  but 
seldom  represented,  except  in  the  seal  cylinders.  The  scenes 
with  which  the  discoveries  of  Layard  and  Place  have  made  us 
familiar  are  almost  entirely  secular  and  genre  subjects.  They 
differ  from  the  corresponding  subjects  in  Egyptian  art  in  not 
relating  to  the  lives  of  private  individuals,  but  to  the  life  of 
the  king.  His  horses  are  represented  led  by  grooms  to  water. 
His  private  parks  are  shown  stocked  with  lions  and  gazelles. 
He  is  portrayed  as  reclining  at  a  banquet,  his  table  being  sup- 
plied by  a  procession  of  viand-bearing  attendants.  He  starts 
out  to  hunt  the  lion,  the  wild  ass,  or  the  gazelle,  in  his  char- 
iot or  on  his  horse,  accompanied  by  soldiers,  courtiers,  and 


4O  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 

huntsmen.  Sometimes  the  hunt  is  open,  and  at  other  times 
great  battues  are  organi?ed  and  the  game  surrounded  by  serried 
lines  of  warriors  into  which  the  king  breaks  to  bring  the  hunt 
,to  a  close.  Then  he  returns,  his  attendants  bearing  the  game. 
The  bodies  are  laid  on  the  ground  and  offered  to  Asshur  by  the 
pouring  out  of  a  libation.  If  there  is  war  and  conquest,  the 


FIG.   14. — RELIEF  FROM  KHORSABAD.      LOUVRE. 

court  sculptor,  in  true  Oriental  style,  gives  all  the  credit  to 
the  royal  prowess.  The  king  is  the  central  figure  in  the  march 
and  in  the  stricken  field.  The  camp  is  depicted,  the  groom- 
ing of  horses,  the  cooking  of  rations,  the  establishment  of 
t£tes-de-pont,  the  propitiatory  offerings  on  the  march,  the  set- 
ting up  of  commemorative  stelae  as  the  army  passes  along  after 
victory.  We  see  all  the  details  of  the  attack  on  a  wal)ed  city 
•—the  archers  firing  from  behind  skin-covered  shields,  the  sol- 


ASSYRIAN  SCULPTURE.  4! 

diers  pushing  forward  a  battering-ram  and  pouring  water  upon 
:ts  front  to  prevent  it  from  being  fired  by  the  torches  cast  down 
oy  the  besieged,  and,  in  front  of  the  gates,  prisoners  being 
impaled  to  strike  terror,  while  others  are  led  away.  In  the 
representations  of  battle-scenes  many  successive  stages  of  the 
conflict  are  given,  even  portraying  (as  in  the  siege  of  Susa)  the 
late  of  the  particular  leaders.  Then  follow  the  submission  of 
the  vanquished,  the  presentation  of  tribute,  the  soldiers  bring- 
ing in  the  heads  of  slain  enemies  to  be  counted. 

Thus  the  Assyrian  sculptor  excelled  in  telling  a  story,  clearly 
and  with  no  superfluous  details.  His  work  was  naturalistic 
and  somewhat  narrow  in  its  scope,  but  it  was  greatly  varied  in 
its  detail.  The  power  of  observation  was  cultivated  far  more 
than  with  the  Babylonians.  And  there  was  a  sympathy  with 
animal  life  that  went  far  to  redeem  the  hardness  and  rigidity 
of  the  style.  The  lions  and  lionesses,  in  repose  and  action, 
bounding  to  the  attack  or  in  their  last  agonies;  the  fleeing, 
prancing,  kicking  wild  asses,  the  horses  stretching  themselves 
in  fleet  course,  with  quivering  nostrils — are  given  with  wonder- 
ful naturalness  and  artistic  sense  :  they  are  full  of  life  and  of 
irue  plastic  simplicity.  The  reality  is  so  great  that  one  can 
scientifically  identify  many  breeds  of  birds  and  animals  from 
tne  sculptures.  With  plants,  trees,  and  flowers  the  sculptor 
nad  far  less  success,  as  his  material  was  less  suited  to  their 
representation  in  the  low  relief  which  was  his  only  method  of 
modelling. 

MATERIALS,  METHODS,  AND  CONVENTIONS.  The  Assyrians  did 
not  employ  to  any  extent  diorite  or  other  hard  stone  for  sculp- 
ture, as  did  the  Babylonians.  Such  stones  were  suited  more 
particularly  to  work  in  the  round,  for  which  the  Assyrians  did 
not  care.  At  most  they  used  such  material  for  an  occasional 
commemorative  stele  or  obelisk.  Bas-relief  was  their  specialty, 
and  they  found  excellent  material  in  the  alabaster  and  soft  lime- 
stone quarried  from  the  mountains  on  their  borders.  This  use 
of  soft  material,  so  easily  handled  by  the  sculptor,  was  not 


42  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

without  influence  both  on  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  monu- 
ments produced.  The  Assyrian  sculptor  seemed  to  revel  in 
the  facility  with  which  he  could  fashion  the  stone,  indulging 
in  the  minutest  detail  work  and  exaggerating  lines,  muscular 
development,  and  expression. 

This  artistic  plasticity  and  freedom  of  hand,  with  which 
the  Assyrian  artist  appears  to  have  been  far  more  liberally 
endowed  than  his  Babylonian  predecessor,  is  nowhere  more 
clearly  shown  than  in  the  terracottas.  These  were  not  cast  in 
moulds — as  with  the  Babylonians,  Phoenicians,  and  Greeks — 
but  executed  with  free  hand  in  the  lump  of  clay.  At  other 
times,  when  the  clay  was  covered  with  a  glaze,  a  mould  was 
employed,  but  the  style  remained  free  and  bold. 

Bronze  figures  were  not,  apparently,  so  common  as  with  the 
Babylonians,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  working  of  bronze  in 
relief  was  carried  to  a  perfection  unknown  to  Babylonia.  The 
hammer,  chisel,  and  burin  were  used  with  wonderful  skill  in 
the  production  of  bronze  doors,  plaques,  dishes,  vases,  etc. 
The  delicacy  of  touch  and  beauty  of  detail  that  distinguished 
Assyrian  artists  were  also  shown  in  their  ivory  carvings.  Amid 
Egyptian  and  Phoenician  imported  works,  so  numerous  among 
the  finds  at  Nineveh,  the  native  Assyrian  ivories  stand  out 
most  markedly.  They  are  in  precisely  the  same  style  as  the 
larger  sculptures,  but  with  freer  modelling  and  greater  refine- 
ment of  type. 

The  Babylonian  custom  of  using  seals  and  cylinders  in  all 
public  documents  was  followed  in  Assyria,  and  the  character- 
istics that  we  find  in  large  sculpture  are  eoually  evident  in 
these  small  works  of  the  engravers.  It  is  as  easy  to  distin- 
guish Assyrian  from  Babylonian  work  in  cut  seals  as  in  the 
larger  monuments.  We  find  in  them  the  same  sharp  outlines, 
the  same  precise  rendering  of  details  and  muscular  exaggera- 
tion, the  same  symmetry  of  composition  as  contrasted  with  the 
less  artistic  grouping  of  the  Babylonian  artists. 

Beside  the  mass  of  work  in  low  relief,  some  few  statues  in 


ASSYRIAN   SCULPTURE. 


43 


the  round  have  been  preserved,  and  a  number  of  statuettes,  but 
they  are  in  themselves  proof  of  the  inaptitude  of  the  Assyrian 
artists  to  work  in  the  round.  It  is  true  that  many  statues  of 
the  gods  are  mentioned  in  the  texts  as  existing  in  the  temples, 
and  in  the  bas-reliefs  we  see  Assyrian  soldiers  transporting  such 


FIO.    15. — CAPTURE    OP    LACHISH    BY   SENNACHERIB.       BRITISH    MUSEUM. 

divine  statues  on  their  shoulders,  but  sculpture  in  the  round 
was  not  the  best  or  the  most  frequent  expression  of  the  Assyr- 
ian artist.  The  colossal  figures  of  genii  that  guarded  the  city 
and  palace  gates  were  of  a  type  midway  between  statuary  and 
relief,  and  they  were  certainly  the  most  original  and  impressive 
works  of  the  school. 


44  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

One  must  not  overlook  the  fact  that  the  Assyrians  followed 
the  common  Asiatic  custom  of  carving  colossal  reliefs  on  the 
surface  of  rocks  along  the  course  of  their  expeditions.  These 
were  monuments  to  commemorate  treaties  or  victories,  and 
representing  the  gods  and  the  king.  Such  a  monument  is  that 
at  Bavian,  of  the  time  of  Sennacherib,  and  another  is  at  Mai- 
thai".  Analogous  works  were  executed  by  the  Elamites  and 
Hittites. 

As  a  rule,  the  sculptor  showed  remarkable  ability  in  elimi- 
nating all  superfluous  elements  from  the  compositions.  The 
figures  were  always  arranged  on  a  single  plane,  except  where 
two  figures  were  shown  standing  side  by  side,  one  imme- 
diately behind  the  other.  When  an  action  was  depicted  which, 
like  the  drawing  of  a  colossus  on  rollers,  necessitated  the 
deployment  of  several  lines  of  men,  the  lines  were  placed  one 
over  the  other  in  profile,  their  grouping  being  in  plan.  So,  if 
it  was  desired  to  show  soldiers  mounting  a  hillside,  they  were 
carved  in  profile  ascending  along  a  section  of  the  hill  marked 
by  a  line  drawn  along  its  surface,  upon  which  the  soldiers 
stepped. 

The  figure  was  represented  quite  perfectly  in  profile,  and 
here  we  see  marked  superiority  to  the  Babylonian  school,  but. 
on  the  other  hand,  we  find  no  examples  of  the  use  of  the  full 
face,  which  was  by  no  means  unknown  to  the  Babylonians. 
The  sculptor  employed  but  a  single  type  of  face — that  of  the 
Shemitic  Assyrians — 'its  only  variant  being  a  reproduction  of 
the  cognate  Jewish  type. 

The  master  sculptors  appear  to  have  executed  models  on  a 
small  scale  both  in  terracotta  and  in  stone,  which  were  after- 
ward used  by  the  workmen  to  whom  the  bulk  of  the  execution 
was  confided.  The  production  of  bas-reliefs  was  so  immense, 
at  the  time  of  the  construction  of  any  royal  palace,  that  some 
such  method  as  this  was  required  in  order  to  insure  uniformity 
of  style  and  type  in  the  different  parts.  Color  was  quite  an 
important  element  in  the  effect.  The  hair,  eyes,  and  drapery 


ASSYRIAN  SCULPTURE.  45 

were  generally  brightened  with  it,  and  it  is  probable  that  this 
peculiarity  passed  from  the  Assyrians  to  the  Greeks,  who  suc- 
ceeded them  in  the  perfect  mastery  of  relief  sculpture. 

The  sculptors  were,  so  to  speak,  a  part  of  the  organization 
of  the  state,  and  their  work  was  an  official  act.  They  were 
not  only  employed  in  temples  and  palaces,  but  accompanied 
the  army  on  its  campaigns  to  carve  memorials  of  its  victories 
on  the  nearest  cliff  or  to  erect  obelisk-like  stelae  carved  with 
images  of  the  king  and  the  figures  or  symbols  of  the  great 
gods,  and  sometimes,  even,  scenes  from  the  campaign. 

HISTORY,  There  is  less  variety  of  style  in  Assyrian  than  in 
Babylonian  sculpture.  There  seems  to  have  been  but  one 
school,  one  technique,  one  style.  And  yet  it  is  possible  to 
distinguish  at  least  two  periods  of  production;  one  from  the 
beginning  up  to  the  reign  of  Sargon,  the  other  from  Sennach- 
erib to  the  fall  of  Nineveh.  One  of  the  earliest  pieces  of 
Assyrian  sculpture  is  a  nude  female  figure  of  a  goddess  in  the 
British  Museum,  with  an  inscription  of  King  Assur-bel-Kala, 
which  reproduces  so  perfectly  a  well-known  type  on  the  Baby- 
lonian seal  cylinders  that  it  would  lead  one  to  conjecture 
that  in  the  twelfth  century,  when  Assyria  was  in  the  course  of 
establishing  an  autonomous  civilization,  she  had  not  yet  broken 
loose  from  an  imitation  of  Babylonian  work.  At  the  same 
time,  the  few  remains  of  the  reign  of  Tiglath-pileser  I.  prove 
that  at  this  date  (circa  1120)  the  Assyrian  artists  had  formed 
their  style.  We  know  nothing  of  the  development  of  Assyrian 
sculpture  during  the  following  centuries.  The  next  monuments 
in  date  are  those  of  the  reign  of  Assur-nazir-pal  (885-860) 
which  constitute  one  of  the  greatest  series  known,  and  are  the 
most  impressive  and  grand  of  all  the  Assyrian  work.  The 
artists  had  reached  their  apogee  in  the  reliefs  from  the  royal 
palace  at  Kalah.  The  figures  are  large,  and  the  story  is  told 
simply  and  clearly.  There  are  no  backgrounds  of  scenery,  no 
elaborate  attempts  at  establishing  different  planes  in  the  same 
relief.  The  carved  marble  dado  along  the  palace  halls  has  but 


46  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

a  single  row  of  figures.  The  relief  is  exceedingly  low,  but 
the  muscularity  and  the  features  are  strongly  accentuated. 
The  desire  to  tell  the  story  clearly  is  so  predominant  as  often 
to  lead  the  sculptor  to  carve  the  historic  inscriptions  straight 
across  the  reliefs  which  illustrate  them,  much  to  the  detriment 
of  artistic  effect.  It  was  at  this  period  that  the  colossal  genii 
that  flanked  the  palace  gates,  the  lions,  and  the  man-headed 
bulls  were  executed  with  greatest  power.  The  same  style  was 
followed  under  Assur-nazir-pal's  successors.  There  remain 
two  remarkable  monuments  of  the  reign  of  his  son  Shalmaneser 
II.,  a  basalt  obelisk  found  at  Nimroud  and  the  bronze  gates  to 


FIG.    l6. — ASSUR-BANI-PAL   STABBING   A    LION.      BRITISH    MUSEUM. 

a  palace  which  he  built  at  Balawat.  The  few  sculptures  from 
that  date  to  the  reign  of  Tiglath-pileser  II.  (745-727)  con- 
tinue the  traditions  of  the  previous  century. 

With  Sargon  (722-705)  comes  the  decadence  of  the  grand, 
epic  style.  The  figures  are  less  lifelike,  the  relief  is  higher, 
but  character  and  sharpness  are  lost  instead  of  gained  by  a 
softer  gradation  of  the  surfaces.  The  inscriptions  no  longer 
cross  the  reliefs,  and  occasionally  an  attempt  is  made  to  intro- 
duce picturesque  accessories  into  the  background.  Sennach- 
erib, his  immediate  successor  (705-681),  inaugurated  a  new 
artistic  ideal ;  and  the  art  of  his  time  aims  at  being  pictu- 
resque, varied,  lifelike,  and  dramatic.  We  find  scenery  and 


ASSYRIAN   SCULPTURE.  47 

accessories,  a  multitude  of  small  figures,  a  detailed  representa- 
tion of  incident.  The  stone  dado  is  carved  in  several  super- 
posed lines  of  relief,  so  that  the  processions  of  impressive 
large  figures  are  lost.  But  the  change  of  style  seems  unfortu- 
nate, and  the  effect  is  confused.  The  artists  of  a  later  king, 
Assur-bani-pal  (668),  the  last  great  patron  of  art,  showed  better 
insight.  They  returned  in  part  to  the  old  simple  style,  with 
greater  delicacy  of  treatment  and  higher  finish.  In  composi- 
tions, such  as  battle-pieces,  they  retained  the  style  of  Sennach- 
erib, but  succeeded  better  in  being  dramatic,  and  in  portray- 
ing scenes  full  of  a  multitude  of  small  figures  without  lapsing 
into  confusion.  Such  are  some  of  the  hunting  and  garden 
scenes.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  battle-pieces,  like  that  of 
the  defeat  of  the  Elamites  at  Susa,  the  artist  has  not  succeeded 
wholly  in  avoiding  the  confused  compositions  characteristic  of 
the  reliefs  of  Sennacherib. 

EXTANT  REMAINS.  Rock-cut  sculptures  of  Tiglath-pileser  I.,  at 
Korkhar  (N.  of  Diarbekr) ;  of  Sennacherib  at  Bavlan  (N.N.E.  of  Mosul); 
of  Essarhaddon  and  other  kings  near  the  Nahr-el-kelb  in  Phoenicia  (near 
Beyrouth) ;  of  a  Sargonid  king  at  Malthai  (N.  of  Mosul).  The  British 
Museum  contains  the  results  of  Layard's  excavations,  especially  the  numer- 
ous series  of  reliefs  of  Assur-nazir-pal  and  Assur-bani-pal,  and  less  im- 
portant series  of  Tiglath-pileser  III.  and  Sennacherib,  the  obelisks  of 
Assur-nazir-pal  and  Shalmaneser  II.,  and  the  latter's  bronze  gates.  The 
Museum  of  the  Louvre  is  especially  rich  in  the-  series  of  Sargon  reliefs 
found  in  this  king's  palace  by  Place.  There  are  small  collections  of 
reliefs  at  the  Vatican  Museum,  at  the  Historical  Society  in  New  York,  at 
Amherst  College,  etc.  The  British  Museum  is  especially  rich  in  remains  of 
industrial  art  of  all  kinds,  while  Assyrian  seals  and  cylinders  are  numer- 
ous, not  only  there  and  at  the  Louvre,  but  also  in  the  collections  men- 
tioned on  p.  35  as  being  rich  in  Babylonian  carved  gems. 


CHAPTER   V. 
^        PERSIAN   SCULPTURE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  Coste  et  Flandin,  Voyage  in  Perse. 
Dieulafoy,  L'Art  Antique  de  la  Perse;  L'Acropole  de  Suse. 
Lenormant,  Histoire  Ancienne  de  I'Orient.  Noldeke,  Per- 
sepolis,  Die  Achaemenischen  und  Sassanidischen  Denkmaler, 
with  photographs  by  F.  Stolze.  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  History  of 
Art  in  Persia,  Rawlinson,  The  Five  Great  Monarchies  of 
the  Ancient  Eastern  World.  Texier,  Description  de  I'Arm^nie, 
de  la  Perse  et  de  la  Mesopotamie. 

THE  ELAMITES.  The  Elamite  kingdom,  with  its  capital  at 
Susa,  rivalled  in  antiquity  the  civilization  of  Babylonia.  In 
fact,  for  a  certain  period  in  the  third  millennium  B.C.,  it  held 
a  large  part  of  Babylonia  under  its  dominion.  We  know  from 
documentary  evidence  that  the  Elamites  practised  sculpture, 
but,  as  no  excavations  have  been  undertaken  as  yet  that  would 
disclose  their  monuments,  we  can  judge  of  their  style  merely 
from  a  few  rock-cut  sculptures.  The  kingdom  was  destroyed, 
shortly  before  650  R.C.,  by  the  Assyrian  king  Assur-bani-pal, 
and  the  country  afterwards  became  a  province  of  the  Persian 
empire,  distinguishing  itself  in  art  from  Persia  proper  by  a 
stricter  adherence  to  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  traditions,  as 
has  been  shown  by  the  interesting  discoveries  made  by  M. 
Dieulafoy  at  Susa,  where  the  use  of  enamelled  bricks  for  relief 
sculpture  prevailed  over  stone. 

THE  PERSIAN  EMPIRE  AND  ART.  The  Persian  civilization 
arose,  at  the  close  of  the  sixth  century,  upon  the  ruins  of  the 
Babylonian  and  Assyrian  powers,  and  it  inherited  their  artistic 
style,  which  was  at  first  the  predominant  element  in  the  devel- 


PERSIAN   SCULPTURE. 


49 


opment  of  the  different  branches  of  art  throughout  the  empire. 
This  element  was,  however,  speedily  tempered  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  two  strong  influences;  that  of  Egypt  after  its  conquest 
by  Cambyses,  and  that  of  Greece  after  the  Persian  contact 
with  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor. 

In  sculpture,  however,  the  Assyro-Babylonian  style  was  at 
first  preserved  in  almost  its  original  purity.  Some  subjects, 
such  as  the  human-headed  bulls  and  the  king  fighting  monsters, 


FIG.    17. — LION    ATTACKING   A    BULL.      APADANA    OF    XERXES.      PERSEI'OLIS. 

were  treated  so  much  in  the  same  style  that  they  appear  to  be 
almost  copies.  The  main  difference  lay  in  the  greater  round- 
ness of  Persian  technique,  in  its  loss  of  the  force  and  directness 
of  Assyrian  art,  in  the  lack  of  vitality  and  expression  in  the 
figures,  and  in  the  narrowness  of  the  range  of  subjects — all  of 
which  are  qualities  that  might  be  expected  in  an  art  that  was 
not  original  but  derived.  At  the  same  time,  there  was  often 
visible  a  trace  of  archaic  Greek  influence,  especially  in  the 
treatment  of  drapery  and  in  the  decoration.  As  in  Assyria, 
the  relief  was  the  favorite  form  of  sculpture,  and  it  was  also 


5O  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

in  connection  with  the  royal  palaces  that  the  great  masses  of 
sculpture  were  employed.  The  new  form  of  the  Persian  pal- 
aces made  the  arrangement  of  the  sculptures  somewhat  differ- 
ent from  that  in  the  Assyrian  royal  residences,  and  there  was 
not  the  same  opportunity  for  continuous  friezes  and  for  variety 
of  subjects.  Reliefs  decorated  both  sides  of  the  main  stair- 
way ascending  to  the  palace.  The  entrances  were  flanked,  as 
in  Assyria,  by  colossal  winged  bulls.  The  Apadana,  or  main 
hall,  of  the  Persian  palace,  which,  with  its  many  rows  of  col- 
umns, was  quite  an  innovation  in  the  East,  was  decorated 
with  the  reliefs  of  the  king  and  his  attendants.  The  reliefs 
were  not  upon  slabs  used  as  a  facing  for  brick  walls,  as  in 
Assyria,  or  for  detached  decoration,  as  often  in  Babylon,  but 
were  carved  in  the  stone  used  in  the  construction  itself,  in  the 
limestone  sub-structures  of  the  palace  platforms  and  the  faces 
of  the  limestone  portals.  No  full-sized  statues  in  the  round 
are  known  to  have  existed. 

HISTORY,  SUBJECTS,  METHODS.  Persian  sculpture  flourished 
little  over  a  century,  consequently  it  has  but  little  history  and 
varies  only  slightly  during  the  course  of  its  development.  We 
notice  toward  the  close  the  increased  influence  of  Greek  ar- 
tists from  Thessaly  or  from  Asia  Minor.  The  earliest  sculpture 
known  is  that  of  the  winged  figure  of  King  Cyrus,  standing  in 
an  attitude  of  adoration,  carved  over  a  door  jamb  at  Pasar- 
gadae,  and  dating  probably  from  the  first  years  of  Darius.  The 
largest  series  of  sculptures  thus  far  discovered  is  that  of  the 
palace  of  Darius  at  Persepolis.  The  subject  of  these  sculp- 
tures is  the  glorification  of  the  king.  All  the  figures  are  rep- 
resented as  directing  their  steps  toward  a  central  point.  A 
double  procession,  on  either  side  of  the  stairway,  mounts  the 
steps,  and  there  is  another  procession  higher  up  on  the  inner 
faces  of  the  doorframes.  These  are  the  subject-peoples  bring- 
ing to  the  king  their  gifts  and  tributes — horses,  wild  asses, 
camels,  rich  stuffs,  rare  products,  objects  in  precious  metals; 
and  these  figures  are  passing  through  the  long  array  of  life- 


PERSIAN   SCULPTURE.  51 

guards,  officers,  and  courtiers,  the  Medes  in  flowing  garments 
and  the  Persians  in  tight-fitting  dress.  Further  on  we  see 
the  king,  either  enthroned  on  his  high  platform  supported  by 
caryatid-like  figures  of  the  conquered  nations,  or  walking 
under  a  sunshade,  or  plunging  a  dagger  into  some  wild  beast 
who  represents  the  foes  of  his  majesty. 

The  range  of  Persian  sculpture  was  the  glorification  of  the 


FIG.    18. — BULL-HEAD    CAPITAL.      PALACE    OF   ARTAXERXES   AT  SUSA.      LOUVRE. 


king  in  one  great  composition.  In  the  rock-cut  relief  of  the 
royal  tombs  the  same  subject  was  repeated  in  a  simplified  form. 
There  was  no  variety,  as  in  Assyrian  art,  either  in  subject  or 
in  treatment.  As  no  distinct  event,  but  only  a  symbolic  rep- 
resentation, was  given,  the  scene  had  an  air  of  unreality.  At 
the  same  time,  it  had  distinct  merits.  For  the  first  time 
Oriental  sculpture  attempted  to  give  the  soft  texture  of  dra- 


52  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

pery  and  imitated  its  natural  folds,  and  here  we  trace  dis- 
tinctly the  influence  of  archaic  Ionic  Greek  sculpture.  There 
was  also  a  distinct  advance  in  the  ability  to  bring  sculpture 
into  its  proper  relationship  to  architecture.  Instead  of  scat- 
tering scenes  broadcast  over  the  surface,  as  in  Egypt,  in  fine 
disregard  of  any  distinctive  grouping  or  subordination;  instead 
of  using  sculpture  as  an  art  connected  with  architectural  struct- 
ure, as  in  Assyria,  the  Persians  showed  some  of  the  Greek  con- 
ception of  the  harmonious  relationship  possible  between  the 
two  arts.  Thus,  the  processions  carved  on  the  sides  of  the 
staircases  followed  the  natural  architectural  outlines,  as  was 
the  case  later  with  the  stairway  at  Pergamon,  and  the  faces  of 
the  limestone  portals  were  used  for  reliefs,  like  the  inner  sides 
of  the  Roman  triumphal  arches.  But  this  peculiar  merit  was 
shown  especially  in  the  use  of  sculpture  for  distinctly  archi- 
tectural decoration.  The  colossal  bull-capitals  at  Persepolis 
and  Susa  were  masterpieces.  The  treatment  of  the  bulls  in 
these  works  was  the  greatest  triumph  of  Persian  sculpture,  for 
naturalism,  technique,  and  spirit. 

EXTANT  MONUMENTS.  Casts  of  a  number  of  the  sculptures  of  Per- 
sepolis have  recently  been  made  for  the  South  Kensington  (London)  and 
Metropolitan  (New  York)  Museums.  Aside  from  the  great  capital  from 
Susa,  in  the  Louvre,  there  are  no  important  pieces  of  Persian  sculpture  in 
vVestern  museums. 


CHAPTER   VI. 
HITTITE  SCULPTURE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  Earth,  Reise  von  Trapezunt.  De 
Cara,  Gli  Hethei-Pelasgi.  Hirschfeld,  Paphlagonische  Felsen- 
grdber ;  Die  Felsenreliefs  in  Kleinasien  und  das  Volk  der 
Hittiter.  Humann  und  Puchstein,  Reisen  in  Kleinasien  und 
Nordsyrien.  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  History  of  Art  in  Sardinia, 
Jud&a,  Syria,  and  Asia  Minor.  Perrot  et  Guillaume,  Ex- 
ploration Arche"ologique  de  la  Galatie  et  de  la  Bithynie.  Puch- 
stein, Pseudohethitische  Kunst.  Ramsay,  Articles  in  Journal 
of  Hellenic  Studies  ;  "  Early  Historical  Relations  of  Phrygia 
and  Cappadocia,"  in  Journal  of  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  Vol. 
XV.  Sayce,  in  publications  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archae- 
ology. Texier,  Description  de  /' ' Asie  Mineure.  Ward  and 
Frothingham,  in  American  Journal  of  Archeology,  1888-89. 
Wright,  The  Empire  of  the  Hittites. 

THE  HITTITE  KINGDOM.  Under  the  general  term  of  Hittite 
we  group  the  sculptures  produced  in  the  north  of  Syria  and 
in  a  large  part  of  Asia  Minor,  especially  in  that  part  adjacent 
to  the  Assyrian  frontier  and  in  Cappadocia.  The  Hittites 
were  for  many  centuries  the  dominant  element  in  a  group  of 
tribes  in  this  region,  and  formed  a  state  that  often  withstood 
successfully  such  great  powers  as  Egypt  and  Assyria.  Their 
racial  affinities  and  their  language  are  still  a  mystery,  and, 
until  we  can  read  their  inscriptions,  we  can  know  but  little  of 
their  history  and  culture.  Carchemish  on  the  Euphrates, 
Kadesh  and  Hamath  on  the  Orontes,  are  the  cities  of  which  we 
read  in  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  annals.  Around  them  the  wars 
were  waged,  and  they  are  more  familiar  to  us  than  the  Hittite 
cities  of  Asia  Minor.  The  centre  from  which  the  Hittites 


54  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

started  in  their  career  of  conquest  was  the  northeast  of  Syria 
and  Armenia,  and  they  gradually  subdued  the  populations  of  a 
large  part  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  Rutennu  tribes  of  central  Syria, 
finally  transmitting  the  culture  of  Babylonia  to  the  ^Egean  and 
standing  by  the  side  of  the  Phoenicians  in  acting  as  a  link 
between  the  East  and  the  West. 

HISTORY  AND  STYLES.  As  far  as  we  can  judge,  the  period 
during  which  Hittite  civilization  and  art  flourished  covers  some 
seven  or  eight  centuries,  from  the  time  when  the  Hittites 
became  formidable  to  Egypt  under  Seti  I.  (fifteenth  century), 
until  the  year  717,  when  the  last  of  the  Hittite  states,  that  of. 
Carchemish,  was  conquered  by  Sargon  of  Assyria.  Perhaps 
the  Hittite  state  of  Pteria  in  Cappadocia  was  the  last  survivor 
of  their  power,  not  coming  to  an  end  until  Croesus  brought 
destruction  upon  their  great  fortified  capital  on  the  approach 
of  Cyrus. 

The  primitive  source  of  much  that  was  radical  and  important 
in  early  Hittite  culture  was  Babylonia.  When  that  great 
southern  empire  held  sway  as  far  as  Syria  and  Armenia,  it 
impregnated  with  its  mythology,  its  legends,  and  its  art  the 
populations  of  the  mountainous  plateaux  of  Armenia ;  and  when 
the  various  tribes  which  we  include  under  the  name  of  Hittites 
started  on  their  career  of  conquest  they  carried  with  them 
these  ideas,  profoundly  modified  by  native  traits,  to  the  less 
civilized  populations  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  Jigean.  Perhaps 
there  is  some  truth  in  the  legends  that  Tiryns  and  Mykenai 
were  founded  by  emigrant  princes  from  Asia  Minor.  We  may 
conjecture  that  the  Hittites  afterwards  felt  the  influence  of 
Egypt,  and  we  know  that  the  cuneiform  system  of  writing,  as 
well  as  their  own  hieroglyphics,  were  known  to  them.  At  the 
close  of  their  civilization  Assyrian  art  asserted  its  supremacy 
over  the  Hittites  even  before  their  cities  were  brought  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Assyrian  kings.  This  is  proved  by  the 
late  German  excavations  at  Sendjirli. 

Contemporary  records  would  seem  to  prove  that  the  Hittites 


HITTITE   SCULPTURE. 


55 


were  very  skilful  in  the  use  of  metals  for  sculpture,  and  were 
renowned  for  the  production  of  gold  and  silver  vessels.  But 
the  only  sculptures  that  have  been  preserved,  beyond  a  certain 
number  of  carved  gems,  are  the  reliefs  cut  in  the  natural  rock 


FIG.    19. —  HITTITE    KELIEF    AT   CARCHEMISH-JERABLUS. 

or  carved  on  slabs  of  stone  and  marble  used  for  lining  the 
walls  of  Hittite  palaces.  In  style  these  sculptures  form  a 
class  somewhat  apart  from  the  plastic  development  of  Western 
Asia.  While  Babylonian,  Asiatic,  and  Persian  sculpture 
developed  on  the  same  general  lines,  each  merely  a  different 


56  HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 

phase  of  the  same  style,  Hittite  sculpture  has  very  marked 
racial  characteristics.  This  is  especially  the  case  with  the 
monuments  in  Asia  Minor,  for  those  of  Syria  show  strong 
traces  of  both  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  influence.  As  a  class 
these  sculptures  certainly  cannot  be  later  than  the  close  of  the 
eighth  century  B.C.  nor  earlier  than  the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth 
century  B.C.,  and  of  these  the  Assyrian  examples  appear  to 
be  the  latest  in  date. 

TYPES  AND  METHODS.  There  are  certain  characteristics  that 
can  be  applied  to  the  style  as  a  whole.  The  figures  are  thick- 
set and  usually  with  prominent  noses  and  large  eyes  ;  they  wear 
shoes  with  turned-up  points,  and  usually  on  their  heads  high 
conical  caps  or  diadems,  though  in  many  cases  the  female  fig- 
ures merely  have  their  heads  draped  in  a  garment  which 
descends  over  their  shoulders.  There  is  a  lack  of  detail,  of 
life,  and  of  animation,  and  where,  as  in  some  cases,  the  artist 
has  attempted  to  use  detail  he  shows  his  lack  of  artistic  abil- 
ity. In  general  the  work  is  extremely  mechanical,  and  quite 
lacking  in  any  of  the  qualities  of  high  art  that  characterize 
Assyrian  work  of  the  same  period. 

Again,  there  are  certain  general  follow) rigs  of  Assyria,  such 
as  in  the  arrangement  of  the  palaces,  in  the  use  of  colossal 
figures  of  genii  at  the  entrances,  in  the  lining  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  walls  of  the  interiors  with  bas-reliefs.  There  was, 
however,  a  far  more  abundant  use  of  sculpture  carved  in  the 
natural  rock  in  long  processions  of  divinities,  genii,  priests, 
and  male  and  female  worshippers.  Besides  such  processional 
series,  we  find  two  or  three  subjects  in  very  frequent  use,  espe- 
cially in  Hittite  monuments  of  Syria.  These  are  the  hunting 
scenes  copied  from  those  of  Assyria ;  the  scene  with  two  female 
figures  of  religious  import  seated  on  either  side  of  a  sacri- 
ficial table ;  and  single  figures  of  gods  and  goddesses  and  of 
priests  and  worshippers. 

AET  HISTORY.  Hittite  art  was  never  wholly  original :  at  the 
same  time  it  was  far  more  so  than  the  art  of  the  Phoenicians, 


HITTITE   SCULPTURE. 


57 


and  showed  an  ability  to  assimilate  foreign  elements.  It  may 
even  be  possible  that  Assyria  reversed  matters  by  borrowing 
from  it  something  in  the  arrangement  of  its  palaces.  The 
great  similarity  makes  one  original  necessary,  and  this  original 
in  its  general  features  was  probably  the  Babylonian  palace; 
though  in  the  text  of  Sargon's  inscription  in  which  he  describes 
the  construction  of  his  great  palace,  excavated  by  Place  at 
Khorsabad,  it  is  expressly  stated  that  its  entrance  was  con- 
structed on  the  plan  of  a  Hittite  palace. 

At  Boghaz-Keui,   evidently  the  capital  of  Pteria,   there  is 
a  great  sanctuary  called  lasili-Kaia,  not  far  from  the  fortified 


FIG.    20.— HITTITE    RELIEF    FROM    SAKTCHE-GOZO'. 

city,  in  the  form  of  an  open-air  temple  among  the  rocks. 
There  is  a  long  corridor-like  space  for  the  gathering  of  the 
people,  connected  by  a  narrow  passage  with  a  smaller  adyton, 
to  which  the  priests  alone  must  have  had  entrance.  The 
faces  of  the  rocks  in  both  open  halls  are  used  for  sculptures  in 
low  relief.  In  the  main  hall  are  two  parallel  processions 
occupying  the  right  and  left  walls  and  meeting  on  the  short 
cross-wall  at  the  end.  On  the  left  are  forty-five  figures,  all  of 
them  men,  while  the  twenty-two  figures  on  the  right  side,  with 
one  exception,  are  all  women.  They  represent  the  male  and 
female  deities  of  the  Pterians,  with  their  priests  and  worship- 
pers. Single  figures  of  deities  and  priests  are  in  the  inner 


HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 


sanctuary.  The  figures  are  in  many  cases  more  slender  and 
graceful  than  any  other  works  of  Hittite  art,  and  in  some  cases 
show  imaginative  and  symbolic  power. 

The  mound  of  Sendjirli,  recently  excavated  by  the  Ger- 
mans, is  but  one  of  over  a  hundred  artificial  circular  mounds 
in  Northern  Syria,  in  each  of  which  lies  buried  a  town  or  city, 

with  its  double  or  triple 
circuit  of  fortified  walls 
studded  with  towers  and 
monumental  gates,  and 
with  its  walled  citadel 
within  which  are  the 
royal  palaces.  Three 
periods  of  Syrian  or 
Hittite  art  and  history 
have  been  here  brought 
to  light :  (i)  The  early 
period  before  the  ninth 
or  eighth  century,  a 
time  of  independence 
in  politics  and  in  art, 
though  even  then  we 
trace  a  correspondence 
to  Assyrian  work;  (2) 
the  period  of  the  eighth 
and  part  of  the  ninth 
century,  one  of  vassal- 
age to  Assyria  and  imi- 
tation of  Assyrian  art  by  native  artists ;  (3)  the  seventh  century, 
when  the  local  kinglets  were  replaced  by  Assyrian  governors 
and  artists  either  trained  in  the  Assyrian  school  or  themselves 
Assyrians  working  in  the  city.  The  city  of  Sendjirli  seems  to 
have  been  destroyed,  never  to  be  rebuilt,  as  early  as  the  sixth 
century.  The  sculptures  of  the  gates  of  both  city  and  citadel 
belong  to  the  first  of  these  three  periods.  The  citadel  gate 


FIG.   21. — HITTITE   RELIEF   AT   BOGHAZ-KEUI. 


HITTITE  SCULPTURE.  59 

was  decorated  with  a  dado  of  sculptured  slabs  containing  some 
forty  figures,  mostly  belonging  to  one  grand  royal  hunting 
scene,  with  lions,  bulls,  deer,  hare,  and  other  wild  animals — 
the  continuity  of  the  subject  being  broken  merely  by  the 
figures  of  the  protecting  genii.  The  principal  decoration  of 
the  city  gates  are  pairs  of  colossal  guardian  lions,  one  of 
which  was  recarved  in  order  to  make  it  more  Assyrian  in  style. 
There  are  many  other  examples  of  this  style  of  sculpture  in 
this  region  of  Syria,  especially  at  Carchemish,  where  the 
Assyrian  influence  exercised  an  especially  refining  influence 
upon  the  native  style.  More  crude,  and  less  dependent  on 
Assyria,  is  a  group  of  monuments  from  Marash  and  Rum  Qalah. 

EXTANT  REMAINS.  Only  a  few  Hittite  sculptures  have  been  removed 
to  Western  museums.  A  few  pieces,  especially  from  Carchemish  and 
Biredjik,  have  gone  to  the  British  Museum.  Others,  beginning  with  the 
Marash  lions,  have  gone  to  Constantinople.  The  most  important  ac- 
cession to  the  Berlin  Museum  has  been  that  of  the  Sendjirli  sculptures. 
The  sites  in  Syria  where  the  most  interesting  sculptures  have  been  found 
are  Marash,  Hamath.  Carchemish,  Saktche-gozti,  Rum  Qalah,  and,  espe- 
cially, Sendjirli.  In  Cappadocia  are  the  rock-cut  sculptures  of  lasili-Kaia, 
the  lions  of  Boghaz-Keui,  and  the  reliefs  and  sphinxes  of  Euyuk.  There 
are  rock-sculptures  with  Hittite  hieroglyphs,  or  in  the  Hittite  style, 
scattered  over  a  large  part  of  Asia  Minor,  especially  in  the  inland  prov- 
inces :  for  example,  in  Phrygia  at  Giaour- Kalessi,  in  Lycaonia  at  Ibreez 
and  Eflatoun-Bounar ;  in  Lydia  at  Nymphi,  or  Karabel,  and  Mt.  Sipylos. 


CHAPTER   VII. 
PHOENICIAN    AND   CYPRIOTE  SCULPTURE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  A.  P.  Di  Cesnola,  Cyprus  Antiqui- 
ties ;  Salaminia.  L.  P.  Di  Cesnola,  A  Descriptive  Atlas  of  the 
Cesnola  Collection  of  Cypriote  Antiquities ;  Cyprus,  its  Cities, 
Tombs,  and  Temples.  Colonna  Ceccaldi,  Monuments  Antiques 
de  Chypre,  fie  Syrie  et  d' Agypte.  Heuzey,  Catalogue  des  Figu- 
rines Antiques  de  Terre  Cuite  du  Muse'e  du  Loiivre.  Holwerda, 
Die  alien  Kyprier  in  Kunst  und  Cultus.  Metropolitan  Museum 
Handbook  No.  3,  Sculptures  of  the  Cesnola  Collection.  Ohne- 
falsch-Richter,  Kypros,  the  Bible  and  Homer.  Perrot  and 
Chipiez,  History  of  Art  in  Phoenicia  and  Cyprus.  Reinacl-, 
Chronique  d'  Orient  in  Revue  Arche'ologique. 

HISTORY.  The  principal  intermediaries  between  the  civili- 
sation of  the  East  and  that  of  the  West  were  the  Phoenicians. 
In  its  physical  characteristics,  the  land  that  was  once  called 
Phoenicia  is  quite  unique.  Its  narrow  band  of  coast,  that 
stretches  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  slopes  of  the 
Lebanon,  is  so  often  interrupted  by  the  extension  of  the 
mountains  to  the  sea  line  that  the  ancient  cities  of  Phoenicia 
had  no  communication  by  land,  but  were  a  series  of  detached 
ports,  each  one  a  centre  of  municipal  life — an  aristocratic 
republic.  The  geographical  form  of  their  existence  precluded 
any  close  union  even  in  the  stress  of  greatest  danger.  Conse- 
quently, a  common  style  of  art  or  of  industry  could  hardly 
be  expected.  Again,  the  population  of  the  Phoenician  cities 
was  so  small  and  variable,  so  little  given  to  home-staying,  so 
taken  up  with  life  at  sea,  that  no  great  monuments  of  art, 
such  as  were  created  by  the  great  Eastern  civilizations,  were 


PHCENICIAN  AND   CYPRIOTE  SCULPTURE. 


6l 


possible  to  them.  It  was  entirely  in  the  commercial  spirit  that 
works  of  art  were  produced  by  the  Phoenicians.  They  were 
executed  not  for  home  use,  but  for  sale  and  barter,  and  conse- 
quently there  was  every  reason  why  the  style  of  their  execu- 
tion should  have  been,  as  it  was,  imitated  from  that  of  their 
more  powerful  neighbors 
who  had  developed  a 
monumental  art.  We  have 
no  traces  of  monuments 
belonging  to  the  early 
period  of  Phoenician  his- 
tory. There  are  none  of 
the  second  age — that  of 
the  supremacy  of  Sidon. 
It  is  only  after  Tyre  had 
wrested  from  her  older 
friend  and  neighbor  the 
supremacy  of  the  sea 
(circa  1000-900  B.C.), 
that  we  begin  to  fi  n  d 
traces  of  Phoenician  art — 
monuments  the  dates  of 
which  are  more  or  less 
certain.  Before  this 
period,  Sidon  had  occu- 
pied the  islands  of  Cyprus 
and  Crete,  had  establish- 
ments in  Rhodes,  the 
Sporades,  and  the  Cyc- 
lades,  in  Thera,  Melos, 
Thasos,  and  Cythera,  and  had  established  relations  with 
the  mainland  of  Greece.  In  Africa  it  had  built  several 
cities,  especially  Utica,  and  had  marts  in  Malta  and  Gozo. 
We  may  attribute  to  the  Sidonian  merchants  the  earliest 
traces  of  Oriental  artistic  influence  in  Greek  lands  during  this 


FIG.    22.—  PHCENICIAN    HEAD    FROM    ATHIENO. 
METROPOLITAN    MUSRUM,    NEW    YORK. 


62  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 

period,  the  influence  of  Egypt  being  then  supreme  with  the 
Phoenicians. 

Tyre  was  far  more  enterprising  than  Sidon;  she  carried  her 
commerce  very  much  further,  occupied  Sardinia  and  Spain,  and 
established  many  important  colonies  in  Africa,  of  which  the 
greatest  was  Carthage.  Until  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century 
the  maritime  supremacy  of  Tyre  was  not  disputed.  Then  it 
began  to  be  opposed,  and  in  many  cases  superseded  by  the 
navies  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Etruscans.  From  that  time, 
therefore,  the  influence  of  Tyre  was  on  the  wane.  While  this 
was  going  on,  Carthage  was  building  up  an  important  empire. 
She  alone  of  all  Phoenician  cities  undertook  a  policy  of  set- 
tled conquest — the  ruling  of  a  large  territory,  the  permanent 
establishment  of  a  trained  army.  When  Tyre  let  fall  the 
sceptre  of  the  sea,  the  many  Phoenician  colonies  scattered 
along  both  basins  of  the  Mediterranean  naturally  turned  to 
Carthage  for  help.  Then  began  that  memorable  contest 
between  Carthage  on  the  one  hand  and  the  Greeks,  and  after 
them  the  Romans,  on  the  other,  which  ended  only  in  the 
third  century  B.C.  with  the  downfall  of  Carthage. 

The  three  great  names  that  are  significant,  therefore,  in  the 
development  of  Phoenician  art  and  in  the  history  of  the  Phoe- 
nicians as  intermediaries  between  the  East  and  the  West  are 
Sidon,  Tyre,  and  Carthage.  To  these  we  may  add  a  fourth, 
Cyprus.  While  in  Cyprus  the  Phoenician  and  native  art  came 
in  contact  with  the  Greeks  in  a  way  elsewhere  unknown,  the 
importance  of  Carthage  was  especially  great  for  the  influence  of 
Greece  and  the  Orient  upon  Italy.  Italian  trade  remained 
largely  in  the  hands  of  the  Carthaginians,  and  the  contents  of 
the  Etruscan  tombs  of  the  sixth,  fifth,  and  fourth  centuries 
are  ample  proof  of  the  fact  that  the  Carthaginians  did  not  dis- 
dain to  convey  to  Italy  not  only  Oriental  wares,  but  also  the 
products  of  their  natural  enemies  the  Greeks.  After  the  sub- 
jection of  Carthage  the  Phoenicians,  not  only  of  Africa  but 
of  Syria,  came  under  Roman  influence,  and  the  great  bulk  of 


PHOENICIAN  AND   CYPRIOTE   SCULPTURE. 


their  monuments  that  are  now  remaining — such  as  the  votive 
stelae — belong  to  the  centuries  of  Roman  rule.     In  them  we 
still  see  lingering  something  of 
the    Oriental     spirit,    but    the 
dominating   style   of  art  is  as 
thoroughly   Roman    as    in   the 
old  days  it  was  Persian,  Assyr- 
ian, Egyptian,  or  Babylonian. 

MATERIALS  AND  METHODS. 
The  Phoenician  coast  did  not 
afford  any  favorable  stone  or 
marble  for  the  use  of  sculpture. 
The  local  stone  was  far  inferior 
to  the  corresponding  material 
used  by  the  Egyptian  and  As- 
syrian artists,  and  when  a  very 
choice  work  was  to  be  executed 
the  material  was  imported  from 
Egypt.  In  the  sixth  century 
importation  of  marble  from 
Greece  commenced,  and  after 
that  period  was  quite  frequently 
used.  But  the  sculptures  in 
stone,  such  as  the  anthropoid 
sarcophagi,  statues  of  gods,  the 
stelae,  and  architectural  deco- 
rations, form  a  very  incomplete 
series,  and  one  that  does  not 
represent  at  all  continuously 

the  history  Of  Phoenician  SCulp-       FIG.  23.— CYPRIOTE    STATUE  IN  THE  AS- 

ture.   The  history  is  represented          SVKIAN  STVLE-   METROPOLITAN  MU- 
SEUM, NEW  YORK. 

much   better   by   small    sculp- 
tures in  bronze  and  in  terracotta.     Phoenician  monuments  in 
these  two  materials  are  found  in  almost  every  country  where 
the  Phoenicians  had  settlements  or  commercial  relations.    The 


64  HISTORY  OF   SCULPTURE. 

main  centres,  however,  were  Syria,  Cyprus,  and  Sardinia.  The 
bronzes  were  generally  of  a  very  crude  type,  poor  in  execu- 
tion, and  were  in  the  style  which  was  imitated  very  largely 
throughout  the  mainland  of  western  and  northern  Asia.  The 
most  common  figure  reproduced  was  that  of  a  standing  war- 
rior. If  the  Phoenicians  were  comparatively  unsuccessful  in 
the  casting  of  metal,  they  excelled  in  the  engraving  and  ham- 
mering in  relief  of  various  metals,  a  branch  of  industrial  art 
in  which  they  produced  many  exquisite  works,  especially  the 
bowls  and  platters  of  silver  and  bronze  in  the  manufacture  of 
which  they  had  a  monopoly  throughout  the  East.  Analogous 
to  this  work  was  that  of  the  great  shields  in  bronze,  whose 
design  in  circular  bands  was  very  similar  to  that  of  the  bowls, 
and  brings  Phoenicia  into  closest  relation  with  early  Greek 
art,  as,  for  example,  the  Corinthian  school  of  vase  painting. 

In  the  making  of  terracotta  figures  the  Phoenicians  bor- 
rowed both  from  Assyria  and  Egypt,  taking  from  the  former 
the  idea  of  painting  terracotta  figurines,  and  from  Egypt  the 
idea  of  faience  figures,  showing  a  sandy  frit  covered  with 
enamels  of  different  colors.  This  glazed  earthenware  was 
used,  however,  more  largely  for  decorations  than  for  figures. 

At  an  early  date,  when  Assyrian  influence  was  predominant, 
the  Phoenician  artists  used  ivory  with  great  skill  as  a  material 
for  reliefs  in  the  decoration  and  manufacture  of  large  and 
small  objects,  such  as  thrones,  door-panels,  caskets,  perfume- 
boxes,  and  small  statuettes. 

TYPES  AND  SUBJECTS.  The  types  and  subjects  that  were  the 
peculiar  creation  of  Phoenician  art  were  very  few.  The  Phoe- 
nician gods,  the  Baals,  the  Molochs,  the  Astartes,  the  type  of 
the  dwarf  Herakles,  were  more  or  less  purely  native  products, 
because  they  were  connected  with  the  original  worship  of  the 
people.  But  in  many  cases,  as  the  Phoenicians  adopted  the 
worship  of  the  gods  of  different  countries,  they  also  adopted 
their  artistic  type.  In  the  elaborate  scenes  that  are  often  por- 
trayed upon  such  works  as  the  silver  bowls,  we  find  jt  often 


PHOENICIAN   AND   CYPRIOTE   SCULPTURE. 


difficult  to  ascertain  the  nature  of  the  subject.  The  theme 
frequently  seems  to  be  used  merely  for  a  decorative  purpose, 
without  any  regard  to  the 
significance  ;  and  in  some 
instances  it  is  made  up  of 
elements  borrowed  from 
different  sources.  The 
Phoenicians  appear  to  have 
been  the  first  civilized  na- 
tion to  employ  figured 
compositions,  primarily 
not  for  the  sake  of  their 
significance,  but  purely  as 
decorative  material  pleas- 
ing to  the  eye  and  leading 
to  a  readier  sale. 

CYPBIOTE  SCULPTURE.  It 
is  usual  to  treat  Cypriote 
sculpture  as  a  branch  of 
Phoenician  art,  and  yet  it 
forms  a  very  distinct  class, 
having  but  slight  connec- 
tion with  what  we  know  of 
various  branches  of  Phoe- 
nician art.  Cypriote 
sculpture  has  far  closer 
analogy  than  Phoenician 
with  the  development  of 
the  art  in  Kgypt  and  As- 
syria on  the  one  hand  and 
in  Greece  on  the  other. 
In  contrast  to  the  products  of  Phoenician  industry,  its  works 
were  executed  for  the  island  itself,  and  not  for  export  and  sale. 
It  therefore  developed  the  monumental  side  of  sculpture 
instead  of  the  industrial,  and  the  greater  part  of  its  produc- 


FIG.    24.— CYPRIOTE    STATUE     IN   THK    EGYPTIAN 
STYLE.      METROPOLITAN    MUSEUM,    NEW   YORK. 


66  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 

tions  were  executed  in  the  round.  The  Cypriote  artist  used 
stone  in  preference  to  any  other  material,  and  in  this  also  he 
varied  from  his  Phoenician  brother.  The  art  showed  great 
activity  between  the  seventh  and  the  third  centuries  B.C.,  and 
proofs  of  the  immense  production  of  its  artists  can  be  seen 
in  many  museums,  especially  at  New  York,  in  the  British 
Museum,  the  Louvre,  and  at  Berlin. 

The  population  of  Cyprus  was  of  a  mixed  character,  in 
part  Asiatic  and  in  part  Greek.  Constant  communication  was 
maintained  with  both  the  East  and  the  West  by  means  of  the 
Phoenicians,  who  had  important  stations  on  the  island.  The 
Cypriote  civilization  was  therefore  called  upon  to  combine,  in 
a  way  perhaps  unique  in  history,  the  elements  of  Oriental  and 
Greek  culture.  The  earliest  sculptures  thus  far  discovered  are 
influenced  very  strongly  by  Assyrian  models,  and  yet  it  is  evi- 
dent that  this  influence  is  not  directly  through  the  study  of 
original  Assyrian  work,  but  indirectly  through  the  medium  of 
Phoenician  copies.  'Ihe  fundamental  Oriental  influence  upon 
Cyprus  was  always  that  of  Egypt.  Assyria  merely  touched 
the  surface.  The  analogies  to  Assyria  in  the  early  works  lie 
mainly  in  the  profile  and  form  of  the  face,  in  the  long  beard 
and  pointed  cap.  Even  in  these  works  we  find  no  trace  of  the 
vigorous  modelling  of  the  Assyrians,  their  strong  muscular 
development,  their  love  of  detail.  At  the  close  of  the  seventh 
century  or  the  beginning  of  the  sixth,  the  Egyptian  influence 
superseded  the  Assyrian  and  lasted  until  it  was  replaced  by  the 
influence  of  the  Greeks.  This  Egyptian  influence  showed  itself 
in  tfie  attitude  of  the  figure,  in  the  clinging  character  of  the 
drapery,  in  the  head-dress,  in  the  drapery  about  the  waist, 
and  the  designs  upon  it  borrowed  from  Egyptian  monuments. 

There  follows,  in  the  fifth  century,  a  Graeco-Cypriote  style. 
For  a  long  time  it  was  thought  that  Cypriote  sculpture  served 
as  a  model  and  an  example  to  archaic  Greek  sculpture ;  but, 
now  that  the  origin  of  archaic  Greek  art  has  been  pushed  back 
into  the  seventh  century,  before  Cyprus  had  produced  any 


PHOENICIAN  AND  CYPRIOTE  SCULPTURE.  6/ 

works  that  could  have  served  as  models  for  Greek  sculpture  as 
we  know  it,  it  is  evident  that  the  influence  was  of  Greece  upon 
Cyprus.  The  resemblance  between  Greek  and  Cypriote  sculp- 
ture during  the  course  of  the  fifth  century  was  far  closer  than 
between  the  earlier  Cypriote  examples  and  the  Oriental  works 
that  influenced  them.  Cypriote  statues  of  this  period  had 
great  analogy  to  works  of  the  Ionic  school,  with  greater  soft- 
ness and  heaviness  of  proportion.  The  figures  often  have  the 
same  archaic  smile  that  we  see  in  the  figures  on  the  Acropolis 
at  Athens  and  the  sculptures  of  ^Egina. 

The  statues  were  usually  of  life  size  or  slightly  larger,  and 
generally  represented  the  divinities  worshipped  on  the  Island 
of  Cyprus,  such  as  Aphrodite,  Herakles,  etc.  Relief  sculp- 
ture was  practised  with  considerable  skill,  both  in  high  and 
low  relief;  but  sculpture  in  the  round  was  a  more  favorite 
branch  of  art.  Some  of  the  stone  sarcophagi  in  the  Metropoli- 
tan Museum  are  among  the  finest  works  of  the  school.  One 
of  these — a  sarcophagus  from  Amathous — shows  an  interesting 
combination  of  Greek  with  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  art,  while 
a  bas-relief  representing  Herakles  and  Eurytion,  although  it 
treats  of  a  Greek  subject,  does  so  in  a  style  almost  purely 
Assyrian. 

EXTANT  MONUMENTS.  The  largest  collection  of  Cypriote  sculpture 
— the  Cesnola  collection — is  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York.  The 
Louvre  possesses  many  works  of  the  Carthaginian  (African)  and  Tyrian 
(Asiatic)  schools,  as  well  as  some  Cypriote  sculpture,  of  which  there  are 
also  examples  in  Berlin.  Works  of  Phoenician  industrial  art  are  frequent 
in  the  museums  of  Italy,  the  British  Museum,  etc.  The  collections  estab- 
lished by  the  French  in  Algeria  and  Tunisia  are  rapidly  assuming  impor- 
tance. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 
GREEK   SCULPTURE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  Consult  the  General  Bibliography ; 
also,  Bliimner,  Technologic  und  Terminologie  der  Gewerbe  und 
Kunste  bei  Griechen  und  Romern.  Brunn,  Geschichte  der  grie- 
chischen  Kiinstier  ;  Denkmdler  griechischer  und  romischer  Sculp- 
tur.  Collignon,  Histoire  de  la  Sculpture  Grecque  ;  A  Manual  of 
Greek  Archceology ;  Manual  of  Mythology  in  Relation  to  Greek 
Art.  Dumont  et  Chaplain,  Les  Ce'ramiques  de  la  Grece  propre. 
E.  A.  Gardner,  A  Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture.  P.  Gardner, 
Types  of  Greek  Coins.  Heuzey,  Les  Figurines  antiques  de  Terre 
cuite  du  Louvre.  Jones,  Ancient  Writers  on  Greek  Sculpture. 
Kekule,  Die  antiken  Terracotten.  Loewy,  Insch riften gnechischer 
Bildhauer.  A.  S.  Murray,  A  History  of  Greek  Sculpture  ;  Hand- 
book of  Greek  Archceologv.  Overbeck,  Geschichte  der  griechischen 
Plastik ;  Die  antiken  Schriftquellen.  Perry,  Greek  and  Roman 
Sculpture.  Reinach,  Repertoire  de  la  Statuaire  Grecque  et 
Romaine. 

CATALOGUES  OF  MUSEUMS.  Athens  (Kawadias).  Boston 
(Robinson).  Berlin  Museum  (Conze) ;  cast  catalogue  (Fried- 
rich-Wolters).  British  Museum  (Smith).  Hermitage  (Guede- 
now).  Louvre  (Froehner).  Munich  Glyptothek  (Brunn).  Roman 
Museums  (Helbig). 

JOURNALS.  Antike  Denkmdler  des  k.  d.  arcJmologischen  In- 
stituts.  Bulletin  de  Correspondance  Helle'nique.  Jahrbuch  des  k. 
d.  arch.  Inst.  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies.  Mittheilungen  des  k.  d. 
arch.  Inst. — Athenische  Abtheilung.  Mittheilungen  des  k.  d.  arch. 
Inst. — Romische  Abtheilung.  Revue  Arche"ologique. 

DICTIONARIES.  Baumeister,  Denkmdler  des  klassischen  Alter- 
tums.  Daremberg  et  Saglio,  Dictionnaire  des  Antiquite's  Grecque s 
et  Romaines.  Iwan  Mliller,  Handbuch  der  klassischen  Altertums- 
Wissenschaft.  Roscher,  Ausfiihrliches  Lexikon  der  griechischen 
und  romischen  Mythologie.  Smith,  Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Antiquities  ;  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography 
and  Mythology. 

PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS.  Ancient  Hellas  signified  any  country 
where  the  Greeks  lived.  It  comprised  not  merely  the  country 


GREEK   SCULPTURE. 


69 


now  called  Greece,  but  also  an  insular  Greece,  consisting  of 
the  islands  of  the  ^gean  and  Ionian  Seas;  an  eastern,  or 
Asiatic  Greece,  with  important  cities  on  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  extending  under  Alexander  as  far  east  as  modern 
India ;  an  African  Greece,  with  cities  in  Egypt  and  on  the  north 
coast  of  Africa : 

gg-  ••  — ~ -      "•• •."  — •-— -••  Hj^^HMHBMU 

and  an  occidental  Kh  i  a^^tm^Uf 
Greece,  with  col- 
onies in  South- 
ern Italy,  Sicily, 
France ,  and 
Spain.  This  dis- 
continuity  of 
country  tended  to 
produce  a  diver- 
sity of  interests 
and  character,  but 
the  sea  was  to  the 
Greeks  a  bond  of 
union.  It  was 
their  Nile,  their 
Tigris  and  Eu- 
phrates. 

Greece  proper 
is  characterized 
by  its  diversity  of 
landscape  and  cli- 
mate .  It  has 
many  mountains, 
rivers,  and  plains. 
Its  inhabitants 

.  .  .  KK;.    25.  —  LION    GATE    AT    MVKENAI. 

lived,     therefore, 

under  changeable  conditions,  and  had  to  adapt  themselves  to 
summer  heat  and  winter  cold.  The  clear  atmosphere  permitted 
the  sharply  cut  features  of  the  landscape  to  be  seen  from  long 


7O  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

distances.  Thus  the  very  configuration  of  the  country  was  a 
constant  object-lesson  in  clean-cut  forms,  and  it  would  be 
strange  indeed  if,  sooner  or  later,  it  had  not  influenced  in  part 
the  sculptural  sense  and  the  plastic  mind  of  its  inhabitants. 

SOCIAL  CONDITIONS.  The  history  of  the  Greek  world  exhib- 
its a  lack  of  continuity  similar  to  that  of  the  land  itself. 
Though  springing  apparently  from  the  same  parent  stock, 
tribal  distinctions  divided  the  race.  This  appears  to  have 
been  the  case  in  the  prehistoric  period  as  well  as  in  later 
times.  That  this  original  stock  was  Aryan  cannot  be  posi- 
tively determined  by  the  monuments.  A  Shemitic  and  Egyp- 
tian impress  is  apparent  upon  the  earliest  Gr^ek  art,  but  from 
what  source  springs  its  independent  creative  energy  is  still 
unrevealed  by  monumental  evidence.  Language,  mythology, 
and  comparative  politics,  however,  assign  to  the  Greeks  an 
Aryan  ancestry. 

Geographical  conditions  led  naturally  to  decentralized  forms 
of  government.  We  find,  accordingly,  a  number  of  small 
cities  or  commonwealths  instead  of  a  large,  central  capital ; 
local  rulers  instead  of  a  universal  monarch ;  government  by 
aristocratic  councils  and  popular  assemblies  rather  than  by  a 
king.  The  Greek  idea  fostered  local  independence  and  indi- 
vidual freedom.  As  a  consequence  of  such  a  system  of  gov- 
ernment, the  artistic  energies  of  the  people  were  stimulated 
by  a  healthy  rivalry.  The  temples  and  other  monuments  were 
widely  diffused,  and  local  schools  of  art  became  established 
at  an  early  period. 

Religion  was  a  factor  of  prime  importance  in  determining 
the  character  of  Greek  sculpture.  Originally  a.  worship  of  the 
powers  of  nature,  it  became  under  Greek  mytho- poetic  fancy 
a  complicated  system  of  polytheism.  It  contained  a  supreme 
divinity,  but  his  functions  were  limited  by  the  existence  of 
other  aristocratic  divinities  and  a  larger  assembly  of  inferior 
gods.  Below  these  were  the  heroes,  of  semi-human  and  semi- 
divine  origin.  Greek  poetry  had  long  stimulated  and  fostered 


GREEK  SCULPTURE. 


these  supernatural  beliefs.  So  the  sculptor  was  provided  with 
ideal  themes  and  legends,  the  common  possession  and  inspi- 
ration of  his  race. 

Though  separated  from  each  other 
in  a  measure  by  geographical  barriers, 
the  Greeks  were  united  not  merely  by 
the  hereditary  bonds  of  a  common 
ancestry,  but  by  a  common  warfare 
against  their  enemies  and  by  common 
interests  in  times  of  peace.  The 
memorable  victories  over  the  Persians 
effectually  preserved  Greece  from  be- 
coming an  Oriental  province.  In  the 
wake  of  these  wars  followed  a  period 
of  unparalleled  artistic  activity. 

The  festivals  and  games,  espe- 
cially the  Olympic  games,  constituted 
another  strong  bond  of  union.  Nor 
was  Greek  commerce  the  least  im- 
portant factor  in  determining  the  di- 
rection of  artistic  forms.  The  early 
intercourse  of  the  Greeks  with  Egypt 
brought  them  many  impressions 
which  became  indelibly  stamped 
upon  their  architecture,  sculpture, 
and  painting.  Their  long  and  often 
intimate  association  with  the  Phoe- 
nicians brought  Babylon  and  Assyria 
to  their  doors,  while  their  cities  in 
Asia  Minor  received  secondary  in- 
fluences of  a  similar  character. 

SUBJECTS.      The  themes  of  Greek 
sculpture    were  not    limited   to  any 
one  phase  of  local  life.     They  were  religious,  civic,  domestic, 
sepulchral,  according  to  the  demand. 


FIG.    26. — APOLLO    OK    TENEA. 
MUNICH. 


72  HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 

By  far  the  largest  and  most  important  class  of  Greek  sculp- 
ture was  of  a  religious  character,  and  more  or  less  closely  con- 
nected with  the  temple.  Within  the  temple  was  the  image  of 
the  divinity.  In  the  earliest  times  these  images  were  mere 
symbols,  shapeless  stones  supposed  to  have  fallen  from  heaven, 
or  masses  of  wood  or  stone  hewn  in  some  geometric  shape,  such 
as  a  pillar,  column,  or  pyramid.  Even  before  they  assumed  hu- 
man form,  these  idols  were  robed,  crowned  with  garlands,  and 
treated  as  personal  beings.  Gradually  the  symbolic  stage  dis- 
appeared, and  the  gods  were  fashioned  in  the  likeness  of  man. 
Sometimes  they,  were  of  colossal  stature  or  constructed  of  costly 
materials.  Other  statues,  also  of  a  votive  character,  were  placed 
within  and  without  the  temple.  These  were  statues  of  priests 
and  priestesses  or  unofficial  individuals.  Besides  statues,  there 
were  offered  to  the  gods  tripods,  vases,  images  of  sacred  ani- 
mals, armor,  jewelry,  and  other  objects  of  a  sculptural  character. 

The  sculptor  had  also  much  to  do  with  the  external  decora- 
tion of  the  temples.  Into  his  hands  fell  not  merely  the  deli- 
cate carving  of  the  capitals  of  the  columns,  but  the  figures  for 
the  pediments,  highly  relieved  metopes,  and  the  continuous 
friezes  in  low-relief.  The  subjects  of  the  pedimental  sculp- 
tures were  usually,  but  not  always,  associated  with  the  divinity 
to  whom  the  temple  was  dedicated.  In  the  case  of  the  Par- 
thenon the  pedimental  subjects  were  intimately  connected  with 
Athene,  but  in  the  Temple  of  Athene  at  ^Egina  and  of  Zeus 
at  Olympia  the  divinities  stand  unconcernedly,  as  if  they  were 
invisible  spectators  of  the  memorable  contests  of  war  and 
athletic  prowess.  In  some  cases  the  divinity  of  the  temple 
was  not  even  represented  in  the  sculptures  of  the  pediments. 
The  subjects  of  the  metopes  and  friezes  were  usually  unrelated 
to  the  divinity  of  the  temple.  The  discontinuous  nature  of  the 
metopes  made  the  labors  of  Herakles,  contests  of  the  gods 
and  giants,  or  of  Greeks  and  Amazons,  favorite  subjects,  while 
processions,  assemblies,  or  battle-scenes  were  better  adapted 
for  the  continuous  friezes. 


GREEK   SCULPTURE. 


73 


In  connection  with  the  temples  we  find  represented  the 
whole  range  of  Greek  mythology.  Here  were  the  twelve 
Olympian  divinities,  Zeus,  Hera,  Poseidon,  Demeter,  Apollo, 
Artemis,  Hephaistos,  Athene,  Ares,  Aphrodite,  Hermes,  and 
Hestia;  and  the  minor  divinities,  Dionysos,  and  his  cycle  of 
satyrs,  seilenoi,  nymphs,  maenads,  and  centaurs;  Eros,  Psyche, 
and  Ariadne ;  the  Muses,  Graces,  Seasons,  and  Fates  ;  Pluto  and 
Persephone  and  Thanatos  ;  Helios  and  Nyx ;  the  Winds,  Tritons, 
Nereids,  River-gods, 
personifications  of 
mountains  and  cities; 
and  the  heroes,  Her- 
akles,  Theseus,  Achil- 
leus,  Perseus,  and  the 
Dioskouroi. 

Besides  religious 
sculpture,  there  is  a 
class  of  Greek  monu- 
ments of  purely  civic 
character.  These  are 
usually  stelae  recording 
treaties  of  alliance, 
honorary  degrees,  finan- 
cial records,  and  the 
like.  Upon  these 
monuments  the  state, 
the  senate,  or  the  peo- 
ple are  represented  in 
mytho-poetic  fashion ; 
thus  Athens  appears  as 

Athene,  the  senate  as  a  woman,  the  people  as  a  man.     Of  civic 
character  also  are  the  official  busts,  placed  on  pillars  or  columns. 

Another  group  of  subjects  was  furnished  by  the  great 
national  games.  This  class  of  sculpture  consisted  of  athletes 
of  various  kinds,  chariot-racers,  discus-throwers,  runners, 


-BKU.NZE    HEAD   OF   AN   ATHLETE.    NAPLES. 


74  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

wrestlers,  athletes  scraping  themselves  or  binding  the  taenia 
around  their  brows,  victors  in  musical  contests,  or  in  dramatic 
or  comic  poetry.  Such  occasions  furnished  one  of,  the  early 
incentives  to  portraiture,  a  form  of  art  practised  occasionally 
in  Greece  from  the  archaic  period  onward,  but  more  commonly 
after  the  time  of  Alexander. 

Historical  sculpture  as  it  had  existed  in  Egypt  and  Assyria 
was  almost  unknown  in  Greece.  Events  of  importance  were 
commemorated  by  sculptural  monuments,  but  in  mytho- 
poetic, not  prosaic  fashion.  The  yEginetans  commemorated 
the  victory  at  Salamis  by  erecting  a  temple  to  Athene,  and 
decorated  its  pediments  by  representations  of  the  mythic  com- 
bats of  Greeks  and  Trojans.  The  Messenians  recorded  their 
victory  over  the  Akarnanians  by  erecting  a  lofty  pier  on  which 
stood  a  beautiful  figure  of  Nike.  Even  in  the  declining  years 
of  Greek  history,  we  find  at  Pergamon  the  chief  memorial  of 
the  conquest  over  the  Galatians  to  have  been  a  huge  altar  with 
an  enormous  frieze  representing  the  Gigantomachia.  At  the 
same  town,  however,  a  more  realistic  record  was  made  of  the 
same  victories  by  statues  of  dying  Galatians  and  fallen  Per- 
sians. 

When  we  turn  from  the  public-  to  the  private  life  of  the 
Greeks,  we  find  the  sculptor  and  his  associates,  the  workers  in 
bronze  and  precious  metals,  the  wood-carvers,  gem-cutters, 
and  potters  all  contributing  their  share  toward  throwing  into 
beautiful  and  permanent  form  the  objects  which  adorned  the 
home.  Such  were  the  tables,  chairs,  chests,  vases,  cups,  lamps, 
mirrors,  and  mirror  cases,  which  artistic  workmen  ornamented 
with  mythological  representations  ;  also  the  objects  of  personal 
adornment — the  coronals,  necklaces,  bracelets,  and  gems.  A 
large  class  of  objects  of  domestic  character  is  to  be  found  in 
the  terracotta  figurines.  At  an  early  date  these  may  have 
been  chiefly  votive  offerings,  or,  like  the  Egyptian  oushabti, 
made  expressly  for  the  tomb ;  but  from  the  fourth  century  B.C. 
they  seem  certainly  to  have  had  a  wider  function,  and  to  have 


GREEK  SCULPTURE. 


75 


been  made  to  give  pleasure  to  the  living.  These  figurines, 
whether  in  single  figures  or  groups,  are  like  character  studies, 
furnishing  valuable  evidence  of  the  life  and  costumes  of  the 
period.  Subjects  of  mythological  interest  and  figures  of 
divinities  are  common,  and  occasionally  copies  or  variants  of 
famous  statues  are  preserved  in  the  terracottas.  Grotesque 


subjects  also  occur;    but  a  larger  number  are  of   figures   of 
women,  sometimes  of  extraordinary  grace  and  beauty. 

The  skill  of  the  sculptor  was  employed  also  to  beautify  the 
memorials  to  the  dead.  In  various  quarters  of  the  Greek 
world  tombs  in  the  form  of  temples  or  chapels,  or  rock-cut 
dwellings  with  sculptured  facades,  existed  from  the  earliest 
times,  but  in  Attica  and  in  the  Peloponnesos  and  in  Northern 


?6  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

Greece  it  was  customary  to  mark  the  last  resting-place  of  the 
departed  with  a  stele  or  sculptured  slab.  These  stelae  were 
variously  decorated ;  some  by  an  anthemion,  others  represented 
a  doorway  or  sedicula,  in  which  appears  the  figure  of  the 
departed.  Sometimes  the  deceased  was  represented  in  his 
character  as  a  warrior,  a  shepherd,  a  knight ;  again,  his  rela- 
tives gather  about  him  in  a  farewell  scene  or  are  gathered  at  a 
funeral  banquet.  The  burial  scene  itself,  or  the  funeral  pro- 
cession, was  less  frequently  represented. 

TECHNICAL  METHODS.  The  Greeks  derived  from  the  older 
civilizations  considerable  knowledge  of  the  technique  of  sculp- 
ture, but  physical,  intellectual,  and  spiritual  conditions  gave 
their  art  a  new  direction.  For  stone  sculpture  they  were 
practically  limited  to  the  calcareous  rock  and  to  marble.  The 
rougher  material  (poros  or  tufa),  though  frequently  used,  was 
not  conducive  to  the  development  of  a  fine  art ;  but,  fortu- 
nately for  sculpture,  Greece  was  well  provided  with  marble. 
Athens  had  the  quarries  of  Pentelikos  and  Hymettos  at  her 
very  doors ;  there  were  quarries  also  in  Lakonia  and  Boiotia ; 
western  Asia  Minor  was  rich  in  various  kinds  of  marble,  and 
the  Italo-Greeks  could  draw  upon  what  are  now  the  quarries  of 
Carrara.  But  the  most  brilliant  and  uniformly  grained  marble 
came  from  the  Greek  islands.  Of  these  the  marble  of  Paros 
was  most  esteemed,  while  that  of  Naxos,  Thasos,  and  Andros 
was  not  much  inferior. 

All  Greek  sculpture  until  the  time  of  Lysippos,  or  possibly  a 
century  later,  was  freehand  carving.  The  instruments  used 
were,  a  saw  to  prepare  the  rough  block,  sharp-pointed  punches 
to  give  the  first  vague  form,  square  and  curved-edged  and  claw 
chisels  to  define  the  surfaces,  and  a  drill  for  the  deep  cutting 
of  the  drapery.  A  rod  was  sometimes  fastened  upon  the  front, 
so  that  the  sculptor  might  more  easily  preserve  the  balance  of 
the  two  sides  of  his  statue.  The  most  famous  sculptors  did 
not  hesitate  to  build  up  their  statues  from  several  pieces  of 
marble  or  to  leave  portions  of  the  original  mass  as  supports. 


GREEK  SCULPTURE. 


77 


The  final  surface  was  rendered  more  life-like  by  being  rubbed 
down  with  oil  and  molten  wax,  but  the  statue  was  not  complete 
until  it  was  colored  and  gilded.  The  rough  poros  statues  were 
first  covered  with  a  thin  layer 
of  stucco,  with  which  the  color 
was  mixed,  or  on  which  it  was 
laid.  For  marble  statuary  this 
stucco  covering  was  unneces- 
sary. In  crude  examples  bril- 
liant color  was  applied  gener- 
ally and  in  broad  masses,  but 
in  the  finer  works  color  was 
more  specifically  applied  for 
the  emphasis  of  details.  Prax- 
iteles considered  as  his  best 
works  those  for  which  he  had 
the  cooperation  of  the  distin- 
guished painter  Nikias.  Gild- 
ing for  marble  statuary  was  ap- 
plied to  details,  as  upon  the 
wings  of  the  Eros  of  Praxiteles 
or  the  hair  of  the  Venus  de' 
Medici.  Other  means  were 
also  employed  to  give  color 
to  sculpture,  as,  for  example, 
the  use  of  bronze  for  the  weap- 
ons, etc.  The  freehand  carv- 
ing of  reliefs  made  that  pro- 
cess the  reverse  of  the  modern 
method.  The  modern  concep- 
tion of  relief,  based  upon  the 
building  up  of  a  clay  model  upon  a  flat  surface,  is  that  of 
projection  from  a  background.  The  background  is  thought 
of  as  fixed,  and  the  figured  relief  varies  in  projection.  The 
ancient  relief  was,  on  the  contrary,  a  carved  drawing  or 


Fill.    29. — UORIPHOROS  AFTER    POLYKLEI- 
TOS.      NAPLES. 


78  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 

picture,  the  external  surface  of  which  is  the  fixed  plane, 
from  which  in  varying  degrees  the  background  is  cut  away. 
Reliefs,  as  well  as  statues,  were  not  finished  until  polished  and 
colored. 

In  metal  sculpture  the  Greeks  were  well  versed  from  early 
times.  Gold  and  silver  and  bronze  were  used  for  many  pur- 
poses, where  cheaper  materials  are  now  employed.  Iron  and 
steel  played  a  smaller  part.  The  metals  were  given  form  by 
various  processes.  A  common  class  of  objects  were  the  thin 
plates  of  gold,  silver,  or  bronze  applied  as  superficial  decora- 
tion upon  walls,  furniture,  robes,  etc.  These  were  pressed 
or  hammered  into  ornamental  shape  either  freehand  by  the 
repoussd  method,  or  more  mechanically  by  the  aid  of  pre- 
pared blocks  of  wood  or  stone.  In  early  times  even  metal 
statues  were  constructed  of  thin  wrought  plates.  Again,  form 
was  given  to  metal  in  the  hard  state  by  chiselling  and  engrav- 
ing. To  this  class  belonged  small  wrought  objects,  also 
engraved  mirrors  and  cistae,  seals,  dies  for  coins,  and  inlaid 
metal-work.  The  implements  used  for  such  purposes  were 
chisels,  gouges,  burins,  files,  drills,  and  polishers.  The 
Greeks  were  acquainted  with  various  methods  of  casting 
metals.  They  used  stone  and  metal  moulds  for  casting  in 
solid  form ;  and  lime,  sand,  wax,  and  clay  for  various  meth- 
ods of  hollow  casting.  As  in  marble  sculpture,  they  built 
up  bronze  statues  from  a  number  of  parts  and  welded  them 
together.  They  understood  the  gilding  of  bronze,  and  the 
production  of  bronzes  of  various  shades  of  color.  Thus  ath- 
letes were  of  a  brownish  bronze,  and  sea  figures  sometimes  of  a 
more  silvery  hue.  Additional  polychromatic  effect  was  pro- 
duced by  the  inlaying  of  metals  and  the  use  of  artificial  eyes. 
But  Plutarch's  statement  that  Silanion's  bronze  statue  of  the 
dying  lokaste  had  pale  cheeks,  produced  by  the  admixture  of 
silver,  and  Pliny's  that  the  statue  of  the  raging  Athamas  by 
Aristonidas  had  red  cheeks,  produced  by  the  admixture  of  iron 
with  the  bronze,  were  probably  not  based  upon  personal  obser- 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.  79 

vation.  It  is  now  definitely  known  that  the  Greeks  sometimes 
coated  their  bronzes  with  an  artificial  patina. 

Wood-carving,  an  art  which  the  Greeks  attributed  to  their 
mythical  Daidalos,  was  long  held  in  high  esteem.  Even  in 
the  most  flourishing  period,  the  crude  ancient  wooden  images  of 
the  gods  were  honored  with  special  reverence.  The  methods 
of  carving  in  wood  were  also,  in  a  measure,  transferred  to  the 
earliest  attempts  in  stone.  There  were  many  woods  in  Greece 
which  lent  themselves  to  statuary,  such  as  the  cedar,  cypress, 
beech,  oak,  laurel,  myrtle,  pear,  and  olive.  These  woods 
were  carved  in  the  green  condition,  were  painted,  and  some- 
times covered  with  thin  plates  of  metal.  The  latter  practice 
probably  led  to  the  production  of  chryselephantine  sculpture, 
of  which  the  most  famous  examples  were  the  Zeus  Olympics 
and  the  Athene  Parthenos  of  Pheidias,  and  the  Hera  of  Poly- 
kleitos.  These  statues  were  hollow,  with  an  inner  framework 
of  iron  upon  which  was  an  outer  shell  of  wood.  On  this  shell 
were  laid  thin  plates  of  ivory  and  of  gold,  to  represent,  respec- 
tively, the  nude  and  draped  portions  of  the  statue.  By  some 
process,  unknown  to  us,  the  ivory  was  probably  softened  and 
the  separate  sections  juxtaposed  with  a  skilful  concealing  of 
the  joints.  The  ivory  was  then  carefully  polished  and  probably 
colored. 

As  a  material  for  sculpture,  terracotta  was  used  as  early  as 
wood.  Images  of  the  gods  and  architectural  decoration  in 
terracotta  were  in  common  use  before  stone  and  marble  and 
metal  were  employed  for  these  purposes.  The  larger  images 
were  sometimes  built  up  in  separate  parts,  but  more  commonly 
the  clay  was  modelled  around  an  inner  core  of  wood  which 
acted  as  a  support.  The  smaller  images,  or  figurines,  were 
sometimes  solid  and  modelled  freehand,  but  usually  were 
cast  in  moulds.  They  were,  in  the  latter  case,  hollow,  and 
ordinarily  had  a  quadrangular  opening  in  the  back,  which  per- 
mitted a  more  uniform  contraction  when  baking.  The  figu- 
rines of  finer  quality  were  carefully  retouched  before  they  were 


80  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 

baked.  Special  parts,  such  as  the  bases,  hats,  fans,  were 
modelled  separately  and  subsequently  affixed.  After  the 
baking,  color  was  applied.  Sometimes  only  details  were 
marked  by  color,  but  more  frequently  the  original  material  was 
entirely  concealed.  A  groundwork  of  white  was  first  laid  over 
the  figure,  and  upon  this  the  colors  and  gilding  were  applied. 
Thus,  in  all  forms  of  sculpture — stone,  metal,  wood,  and  terra- 
cotta— the  finished  work  was  polychromatic. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
GREEK  SCULPTURE.— CONTINUED. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  The  works  on  Greek  sculpture 
before  mentioned;  also,  consult:  Articles,  Arbores  Sacra, 
Bcetylia,  and  Argot  Lithoi  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio's  Diction- 
naire.  Athenian  female  figures,  Jahrbuch,  II.,  p.  216;  Musses 
d1  Athtnes;  Gazette  Archeol.,  1888,  p.  84.  Athenian  poros  sculp- 
tures, Mitth.  Athen.,  XL,  p.  61  ;  XIV.,  p.  67;  XV.,  p.  84. 
Beule",  h 'is toire  de  la  Sculpture  avant Phidias.  Brunn,  Griechische 
Kunstgeschichte  /.,  Die  Anfdnge  und  die  alteste  decorative  Kunst. 
Conze,  Zur  Geschichte  der  Anfdnge  griechischen  Kunst.  Delos 
sculptures,  Bull,  de  Corr.  Hell.,  III.,  p.  393;  IV.,  p.  29. 
Delphi  sculptures,  Gaz.  des  Beaux  Arts,  XII.,  p.  441 ;  XIII., 
p.  207  and  p.  321.  Furtwangler,  Die  Bronzefunde  aus  Olympia 
and  Die  Bronzen,  forming  Vol.  IV.  of  the  official  publication 
on  Olympia.  Helbig,  Das  homerische  Epos  aus  den  Denk- 
mdlern  erldutert.  Homolle,  De  Antiquissimis  Diana  Simula- 
cris  Deliacis.  Lange,  Die  Composition  der  Aegineten.  Milch- 
hoefer,  Die  Anfdnge  der  Kunst  in  Griechenland.  Perrot  and 
Chipiez,  History  of  Art  in  Primitive  Greece.  Schliemann,  Ilios, 
Troja,  Mykenae,  Orchomenos,  Tiryns.  Schuchhardt,  Schlie- 
mann's  Excavations. 

PBEHISTOBIC  SCULPTURE  IN  OEEECE.  The  objects  found  in 
the  earliest  cities  at  Hissarlik,  in  the  northern  end  of  the 
acropolis  at  Tiryns,  in  the  pre-Phcenician  tombs  of  Cyprus,  in 
several  of  the  Greek  islands,  and  in  the  twelfth-dynasty  city  of 
Kahun  in  Egypt  point  to  a  prehistoric  civilization  in  Greek 
lands  antedating  in  its  origin  that  at  Mykenai  by  perhaps  a 
thousand  years.  The  fact  that  five  successive  cities  lie  buried 
at  Hissarlik  below  the  level  of  the  city  of  the  Mykenaean  type- 
is  indicative  of  the  probable  long  duration  of  this  primitive 
6 


82  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

civilization.  We  find  that  stone  implements  then  predomi- 
nated, though  the  use  of  all  the  metals,  even  iron,  was  not 
absolutely  unknown.  Pottery  was  usually  handmade,  unpainted, 
and  adorned  by  scratched  designs  of  the  simplest  character, 
such  as  points,  zigzags,  and  straight  lines.  Even  at  this 
early  period,  however,  there  was  produced  occasionally  the 
rosette  and  a  rude  scroll-work  suggestive  of  an  imperfect 
acquaintance  with  Egyptian  art.  Among  the  statuettes, 
crude  as  was  the  modelling,  the  most  common  form  was  that 
of  a  nude  female,  in  type  not  unlike  the  Babylonian  goddess. 
MYKENJEAN  SCULPTURE.  The  crude  prehistoric  art  was  fol- 
lowed by  an  art  represented  in  the  rich  finds  made  at  Myke- 
nai.  Mykenaean  art  extended  over  a  period  of  several  centu- 
ries (roughly,  from  1500-1000  B.C.),  and  was  widely  distributed 
over  the  ancient  world.  Its  centre  was  in  Argolis,  at  Myke- 
nai  and  at  Tiryns.  But  remains  of  a  similar  type  have  been 
found  in  Lakonia,  at  Amyklai  and  at  Vapheio ;  in  Attika,  at 
Athens,  Spata,  and  Menidi ;  in  Boiotia,  at  Orchomenos  ;  in 
the  Troad,  at  Hissarlik ;  in  Karia  and  Phrygia ;  in  Egypt ;  in 
Crete  and  others  of  the  Greek  islands ;  and  in  Italy,  espe- 
cially in  Sicily.  It  was  a  powerful  type  of  art,  which  in- 
trenched itself  behind  strong  walls,  in  well-built  palaces  and 
finely  decorated  tombs.  Mykenaean  sculpture  was  not  wholly 
unrelated  to  that  of  the  preceding  type,  but  was  much  further 
developed,  and  entered  into  rivalry  with  the  art  of  Egypt  and 
Assyria.  If  the  prehistoric  period  be  broadly  characterized 
as  the  stone  age  of  Greek  art,  the  Mykenaean  may  be  called 
its  age  of  bronze.  Metals  were  now  extensively  used,  and 
handled  with  great  skill.  Gold  and  silver  were  fashioned  into 
diadems,  necklaces,  bracelets,  earrings,  ornamental  plaques, 
and  masks  to  cover  the  faces  of  the  dead.  Bronze  was  exten- 
sively used  for  architectural  decoration,  as  well  as  for  imple- 
ments of  warfare  or  of  peace.  The  high  degree  of  advance- 
ment in  metal-work  of  this  period  may  be  illustrated  by  the 
two  gold  cups  from  Vapheio,  and  by  the  inlaid  bronze  pon- 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.  83 

iards  from  Mykenai.  On  one  of  the  Vapheio  cups  are  repre- 
sented wild  bulls  'untamed,  in  the  other  the  same  animals 
subjugated  by  man.  Taken  together,  the  subjects  of  these  cups 
reveal  a  principle  of  contrast  destined  to  play  a  long  role  in 


Fid.    30. — MKTOPK   OF   THE    PARTHENON.        UKITISli   MUSEUM. 

Greek  art.  The  careful  modelling  of  the  forms  of  the  bulls 
exhibits  a  naturalistic  spirit  and  a  power  of  observation  supe- 
rior to  that  displayed  by  the  Assyrian  sculptors.  The  bronze 
poniards  were  evidently  inspired  by  Egyptian  example,  with 


84  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

figured  designs  beautifully  inlaid — but  the  forms  and  adapta- 
tion of  the  subjects  to  the  space  are  Mykenaean  and  not  Ori- 
ental. 

Decorative  sculpture  in  stone,  as  it  appeared  on  the  col- 
umns of  the  tomb  of  Atreus  or  the  alabaster  frieze  from 
Tiryns  or  the  ceiling  of  the  tomb  at  Orchomenos,  was  a  trans- 
lation into  stone  of  ornamental  forms  more  commonly  oeaten 
from  metal ;  but  the  lions  in  high-relief  over  the  gates  of 
Mykenai  exhibit  a  remarkable  freedom  of  treatment  which 
presupposes  some  experience  in  sculpture  in  the  round,. 

Mykenaean  gems,  to  which  class  belong  the  so-called  "  island 
stones,"  reveal  an  attempt  to  adapt  the  composition  to  the 
space  and  a  full  possession  of  the  technical  ability  of  model- 
ling upon  a  minute  scale.  These  gems  betray  the  prevalence 
of  an  animal  worship  in  which  the  worshippers  are  clad  in 
artificial  skins  of  animals,  such  as  the  lion,  bull,  horse,  ass, 
stag,  goat,  or  hog.  Recently  Mykenaean  inscriptions  have 
been  discovered  in  Crete,  showing  the  use  of  a  pre-Phoenician 
hieroglyphic  and  syllabic  type  of  written  language. 

To  whatever  department  of  art  we  turn,  we  find  that  the 
Greeks  of  this  period  absorbed  many  of  the  ideas,  forms,  and 
methods  of  Egyptian  and  Babylonian  art,  not  in  servile  imi- 
tation, but  reconstructing  and  adapting  them  to  new  purposes. 

THE  DARK  AGES  OF  GREEK  SCULPTURE.  The  disappearance  of 
Mykenaean  art  appears  to  have  been  due  to  the  inroads  of  Hel- 
lenic tribes  from  Thessaly,  especially  the  Dorians  and  lonians. 
The  process  by  which  new  forms  were  finally  established  was  a' 
gradual  one.  In  some  quarters  Mykenaean  types  continued  to 
be  reproduced  as  late  as  the  sixth  century  B.C.  :  in  other  quar- 
ters there  appear  to  have  been  transitional  stages,  more  or  less 
clearly  marked,  in  which  changes  occurred  and  yet  the  conti- 
nuity of  artistic  forms  was  in  large  measure  preserved.  These 
stages  are  best  followed  in  the  pottery,  which  enables  us  to 
distinguish  a  geometric  style,  in  which  many  Mykenaean  motives 
were  reproduced  in  rectilinear  or  more  rigid  form.  Then  fol- 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.  85 

lowed  the  so-called  Oriental  style.  Mykensean  motives  were 
assigned  an  inferior  position,  and  greater  prominence  was 
given  to  rows  of  animals  disposed  in  parallel  or  concentric 
bands.  Oriental  motives,  such  as  masanders,  rosettes,  lotus 
flowers,  and  various  forms  of  volutes,  filled  the  interspaces. 
The  designs  upon  metal-work  were  of  a  similar  character. 
It  was,  however,  during  this  period  that  Greek  mythology 


FIG.    31.— THESEUS,  OR   OLYMPOS,    FROM    EASTERN   PEDIMENT   OF   THE    PARTHENON. 
BRITISH    MUSEUM. 

was  being  formulated  and  Greek  poetry  was  popularizing  many 
legends  suitable  for  representation  in  sculpture  and  the  arts  of 
design.  If  we  compare  the  shield  of  Achilles,  as  described  by 
Homer  (ninth  century),  with  the  shield  of  Herakles,  described 
by  Hesiod  (seventh  century),  we  see  that  the  former  contained 
generic  subjects — the  earth,  the  seasons,  a  city  in  time  of 
peace  in  contrast  with  a  city  in  lime  of  war,  choral  dances, 
and  the  ocean :  whereas  the  design  of  the  later  shield  was  not 


86 


HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 


only  more  complex,  having  a  large  number  of  subjects,  but 
more  specifically  Hellenic,  being  adorned  with  scenes  taken 
trom  the  new  mythology.  The  early  bronze  shields  found  in 
Crete,  and  the  incised  patera  from  Cyprus  and  Southern  Italy, 

illustrate  well  the 
decorative  sculpture  of 
this  period.  Its  cul- 
mination was  exempl'- 
fied  by  the  famous 
chest  of  Kypselos, 
seen  by  Pausanias  in 
the  Heraion  at  Olym- 
pia,  and  now  assigned 
to  the  early  year&  of  the 
sixth  century.  Mere 
space'-filling  ornamen- 
tation haddisappeared, 
and  figured  design  of  a 
mythological  character 
"was  firmly  established. 
The  old  scheme  of 
parallel  bands  was  pre- 
served, and  the  design 
appears  to  have  been 
arranged  partly  upon 
J  the  Doric  metopal  and 
*E  partly  upon  the  Ionic 

frieze  principles. 
Sculpture  in  the  round  made  slower  progress.  This  was 
due  to  various  causes.  An  imageless  worship  at  first  prevailed, 
and  it  was  by  very  slow  stages  that,  from  rude  or  geometrically 
shaped  blocks  of  wood  or  stone,  images  of  the  gods  in  human 
shape  at  length  arose.  The  wooden  xoana,  with  bodies  like 
tree-trunks  or  square  piers,  retarded  rather  than  advanced  the 
progress  of  sculpture.  Nor  did  the  Greeks  entertain  the 


FIG.    32. — NIKE     FROM 

PARTHENON. 


WESTERN     PEDIMENT 
BRITISH    MUSEUM. 


GREEK   SCULPTURE.  8/ 

Egyptian  conception  of  immortality  which  would  lead  them 
to  make  statues  for  the  dead.  Technical  difficulties  also 
stood  in  their  way.  The  art  of  stone-carving  came  slowly, 
and  only  after  considerable  progress  had  been  made  in 
softer  materials,  such  as  wood  and  clay.  The  first  stimulus 
to  stone  and  marble  sculpture  would  seem  to  have  been  given 
by  the  practice  of  making  votive  offerings.  Thus,  in  the 
seventh  century,  Nicandra  of  Naxos  dedicated  an  image,  prob- 
ably of  herself,  to  the  goddess  Artemis  of  Delos ;  and,  in 
the  same  century,  Iphikartides,  also  a  Naxian,  made  and  dedi- 
cated an  image  of  himself  to  Apollo.  These  two  types — the 
.draped  female  and  the  nude  male — constituted  a  generic 
form  for  statues  of  gods,  heroes,  and  commonplace  individ- 
uals. In  these  statues  there  was  no  apparent  relationship  to 
the  sculpture  of  the  Mykenaean  period,  but  they  none  the  less 
revealed  similar  influences  from  Oriental  and  especially  from 
Egyptian  sources.  Both  types  show  a  rapid  development  in 
the  following,  or  archaic  stage  of  Greek  sculpture. 

ABCHAIC  IONIC  AND  DORIC  SCULPTURE.  By  the  sixth  century 
the  progress  and  individuality  of  Hellenism  made  themselves 
felt.  Temples  of  stone  or  marble  were  erected  on  the  coast 
lines  of  Asia  Minor,  in  Greece  proper,  in  Magna  Graecia,  and 
Sicily.  Under  Oriental,  especially  Egyptian,  tutelage,  types 
of  architecture  were  formed,  easily  distinguished  as  Doric  and 
Ionic.  The  yEolians  seem  to  have  been  possessed  of  less  artis- 
tic individuality,  and  produced  no  distinctive  types  either  in 
architecture  or  sculpture.  Sculpture  in  this  century  began  to 
lose  its  Oriental  cast  and  became  a  national  art.  Artists  were 
now  held  in  high  esteem,  and  literary  traditions  concerning 
their  works,  as  well  as  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  monu- 
ments themselves,  are  preserved  to  us.  The  art  of  working  in 
stone  and  marble  was  rapidly  mastered,  and  bronze-casting 
reached  a  high  stage  of  development. 

The  migratory  nature  of  the  early  Hellenic  sculptors  makes 
it  difficult  in  all  cases  to  distinguish  Ionic  from  Doric  work- 


88 


HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 


manship.  Nevertheless,  the  two  classes  may  be  broadly  char- 
acterized. The  lonians  were  the  earliest  in  the  field.  They 
learned  from  Egypt  the  lesson  of  bronze-casting,  and  carried 
it  even  to  Dorian  settlements.  They  also  were  the  first  to 


L 


FIG.    33. — RESTORATION   OF   THE    NIKE   OF    FAIONIOS. 


ascertain  the  value  of  marble  and  to  practise  the  art  of  mar- 
ble sculpture.  Their  work  shows  a  preference  for  round  forms 
and  slender  proportions;  for  light  draperies  falling  in  deli- 
cate folds,  so  as  to  reveal  the  figure;  for  frieze-like  composi- 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.  89 

tions  involving  organic  groups.  The  draped  female  type  was 
rapidly  developed  by  the  lonians. 

Doric  forms  were  sturdier,  of  less  slender  proportions,  of 
more  pronounced  muscularity,  and  with  heavy  draperies  fall- 
ing in  massive  folds.  The  Doric  compositions  were  metopal 
in  character,  with  figures  juxtaposed  rather  than  organically 
grouped.  The  nude  male  type  was  developed  chiefly  in  the 
Doric  schools.  Athenian  sculpture,  the  product  of  artists  of 
all  schools,  represented  a  fusion  of  Ionic  and  Doric  influences. 

ARCHAIC  IONIC  SCTJLPTUBE.  Ionic  sculpture  of  this  period 
is  well  represented  by  the  draped  female  figures  from  Delos 
and  the  similar  series  from  the  Acropolis  at  Athens.  In  these 
figures  the  arms  were  no  longer  drawn  close  to  the  body,  but 
were  extended,  sometimes  gently  raising  the  drapery.  Uni- 
formity of  type  was  disregarded,  and  considerable  variety 
prevailed  in  pose,  in  the  arrangement  of  the  drapery,  the 
hair,  and  other  details.  The  nude  male  type  began  also  to 
show  more  freedom.  The  Egyptian  pose  of  the  figure,  stand- 
ing with  left  foot  slightly  in  advance  of  the  right,  remained 
the  same ;  but  the  proportions  became  more  normal  and  the 
arms  freer.  The  colossal  statue  of  the  Didymaian  Apollo  i» 
the  old  temple  of  the  Branchidai,  near  Miletos,  was  of  this 
character.  The  type  is  well  preserved  in  the  bronze  statue 
found  at  Piombino,  Italy,  and  now  in  the  Louvre  Museum. 
The  early  method  of  forming  statues  from  plates  of  bronze 
riveted  together  was  now  replaced  by  the  art  of  moulding, 
which  Theodoras  is  said  to  have  introduced  and  with  which  he 
doubtless  became  acquainted  during  his  visit  to  Egypt.  Seated 
figures,  such  as  the  statues  which  lined  the  approach  to  the  tem- 
ple of  Apollo,  near  Miletos,  were  a  common  type  in  Ionian 
sculpture  of  the  sixth  century.  A  series  of  these,  chronolog- 
ically arranged,  would  exhibit  the  rapid  progress  made  in 
naturalistic  treatment  of  drapery,  and  in  the  observation  of 
the  human  form.  Ionian  sculptures  in  relief,  as  illustrated  in 
the  Harpy  tomb  from  Xanthos,  in  sarcophagi  from  Cyprus, 


go 


HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 


and  funerary  stelae  from  many  quarters,  show  continuous  com- 
positions with  organic  groups  and  rounded  forms  covered  by 
transparent  drapery.  The  principal  Ionian  sculptors  of  this 
period  were  Archermos  of  Chios,  who  is  credited  with  having 
first  given  wings  to  marble  statues  (circa  580  B.C.)  ;  Boupalos 
and  Athenis,  who  developed  the  draped  female  type  (circa  540 
B.C.);  Rhoikos  and  Theodores,  who  introduced  improved 
methods  of  metal  casting  (circa  575  B.C.). 


FIG.    34. — POSEIDON,    APOLLO,    ANO    DEMETER,    FROM    EASTERN    FRIEZE   OF    THE    PARTHE- 
NON.     ATHENS. 

ARCHAIC  DORIC  SCULPTURE.  The  principal  Doric  centres  of 
sculptural  activity  were  Argos,  Sikyon,  /Egina,  and  the  provin- 
cial schools  of  Boiotia,  Lakonia,  Magna  Graecia,  and  Sicily. 
The  great  games,  especially  those  held  at  Olympia,  proved  a 
powerful  stimulus  to  the  development  of  an  athletic  type  of 
sculpture.  The  nude  figure,  in  its  anatomical  structure  and  pro- 
portions, was  carefully  studied,  and  a  greater  variety  of  poses 
introduced.  The  principal  centres  gave  thus  a  new  direction 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.  91 

to  sculpture,  especially  to  workmanship  in  bronze.  Sculpture 
in  the  round  occupied  the  principal,  and  relief  the  inferior, 
share  of  Doric  activity.  Figures  of  the  gods  retained  in  many 
cases  the  old  xoanon  type  at  the  same  time  that  a  revolution 
in  sculptural  form  was  in  progress.  But  even  the  gods  soon 
submitted  to  the  general  transformation,  and  became  more 
and  more  like  the  figures  of  men.  The  school  of  Argos  held 
the  leading  position  in  the  archaic  period,  and  may  now  be 
studied  in  the  sculptures  recently  found  at  Delphi.  The  stat- 
ues of  Kleobis  and  Biton  are  heavy  in  proportion,  dating  from 
the  earliest  years  of  the  sixth  century.  The  metopes  of  the 
Treasury  of  Sikyon,  finished  about  570  B.C.,  are  more  compli- 
cated than  might  have  been  anticipated,  and  are  suggestive  of 
Ionian  influence.  Ionian  methods  of  composition  are  still 
more  evident  in  the  frieze  of  the  Treasury  of  Siphnos  (525-510 
B.C.).  Here  the  assembly  of  the  gods  may  be  regarded  as  a 
prototype  of  the  eastern  frieze  of  the  Parthenon,  while  the 
Gigantomachia  and  the  combat  of  Hektor  and  Menelaos  present 
more  than  one  motive,  which  yEginetan  and  Athenian  sculp- 
tors carried  to  a  higher  stage  of  development. 

In  Boiotia  the  series  of  statues  found  at  tV  shrine  of  the 
Apollo  Ptoos,  near  Akraiphiai,  exhibit  a  very  gradual  progress 
in  the  direction  of  more  perfect  form,  but  this  development 
was  arrested  by  the  more  rapid  advance  of  other  schools.  A 
similar  slow  progress  is  observable  in  the  funerary  stehne  of 
Lakonia  ;  so  slow,  that  when  the  inhabitants  of  Amyklai  wished 
for  a  throne  for  their  colossal  xoanon  of  Apollo,  they  sent  for 
an  Ionian  sculptor  from  Magnesia.  In  like  manner,  Sicily  and 
Magna  Graecia  could  not  wait  for  the  growth  of  local  talent. 
The  metopal  sculptures  of  the  oldest  temple  at  Selinous  in 
Sicily  exhibit  provincial  Doric  execution  of  motives  which 
may  well  have  been  drawn  from  an  Ionian  source. 

The  acme  of  archaic  Doric  sculpture  is  best  illustrated  by 
the  pedimental  groups  from  the  temple  of  Aphaia  at  /Kgina, 
which  date  irom  tuc  early  years  ot  the  fifth  century.  Here 


92  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

we  see  in  marble  the  results  reached  by  a  severe  training  in 
bronze.  This  is  apparent  from  the  freedom  in  the  attitudes 
of  the  figures,  which  could  hardly  have  been  reached  if  the 
artists  had  been  trained  in  so  friable  a  material  as  marble.  It 
is  evident,  also,  from  the  general  treatment  of  the  surfaces.  The 
composition  as  a  whole  is  an  application  of  sculpture  in  the 
round  to  architectural  purposes.  Each  figure  is  a  unit  by  itself, 
and  these  units  are  juxtaposed  rather  than  organically  con- 
nected. The  Greeks  upon  one  side  of  the  pediment  corre- 
spond, man  for  man  and  pose  for  pose,  with  the  Trojans  on  the 
other  side.  These  marble  groups  were  harmonized  with  the 
poros  stone  of  the  temple  by  means  of  color.  Some  of  the 
accessories  were  of  bronze,  others  were  enlivened  by  brilliant 
color,  and  the  whole  thrown  in  strong  relief  by  a  blue  back- 
ground. 

Prominent  among  the  Doric  sculptors  of  this  period  were 
Glaukias  and  Onatas  of  yEgina  (fl.  490-460  B.C.),  Kanachos  of 
Sikyon,  Dontas  of  Sparta,  Klearchos  of  Rhegion,  and  Ageladas 
of  Argos  (circa  520-465  B.C.). 

ARCHAIC  ATTIC  SCULPTURE.  Athens  drew  to  herself  artists 
from  Ionic  and  Doric  schools,  and  thus  secured  both  grace  and 
strength.  The  series  of  poros  stone  pedimental  sculptures 
recently  found  in  the  Acropolis  are  remarkable  for  being  in 
low-relief  and  containing  organic  compositions.  Relief  sculp- 
ture became  now  the  typical  decoration  for  Attic  pediments, 
and  grouping  rather  than  mere  juxtaposition  of  figures  the  law 
of  composition. 

Important  also  are  the  series  from  the  Acropolis  of  draped 
female  figures,  developed  from  Delian  prototypes.  Ionic 
influence  prevailed  again  in  funerary  stelae  such  as  that  of  the 
Discus-thrower,  and  in  reliefs  like  that  of  the  Apobates  mount- 
ing to  his  chariot.  It  is  in  the  standing  male  figures  that 
Doric  influence  is  most  evident.  Antenor's  (fl.  510-480  B.C.) 
famous  group  of  the  Tyrannicides  seems  to  have  combined 
Doric  strength  and  proportions  with  the  Ionic  mode  of  com- 


GREEK   SCULPTURE.  93 

position.     The  stele  of  Aristion  (circa  520  B.C.),  by  Aristokles, 
shows  the  same  fusion  of  influences. 

EXTANT  MONUMENTS.  Archaic  Greek  sculpture  may  be  best  studied 
from  the  originals  in  the  museums  of  Athens,  Naples,  Munich,  Berlin, 
Paris,  and  London  ;  and  from  the  collection  of  casts  in  Berlin,  Dresden, 
Boston,  and  New  York. 

NOTE.  Prehistoric  sculpture  in  Greek  lands  has  been  enriched  in  recent 
years  chiefly  through  the  excavations  in  Crete.  The  engraved  gems  and 
ivory  carvings  form  an  interesting  series,  but  the  most  striking  objects 
discovered  have  been  the  statuettes  in  glazed  faience  representing  a  Snake 
Goddess  and  her  Votaries  found  at  Knossos,  and  a  steatite  vase  from 
Hagia  Triada  on  which  is  represented  a  religious  procession  remarkable  for 
its  independence  and  freedom.  The  Snake  Goddess  is  published  in  the 
Annual  of  the  British  School  at  Athens,  No.  IX;  and  the  steatite  vase  in  the 
Monumenti  Anlichi,  XIII,  77-132. 

Bronzes  from  the  Dark  Ages  of  Greek  sculpture  have  been  unearthed 
in  considerable  quantity  by  the  French  excavators  at  Delphi  and  the 
Americans  at  Argos.  For  the  archaic  period  the  most  notable  discovery 
has  been  that  of  the  Bronze  Charioteer  from  Delphi,  published  in  the 
Monuments  Piot,  No.  IV.  The  excavations  of  Furtwangler  at  .<Egina  have 
led  to  renewed  interest  in  the  pediments  of  the  Temple  of  Aphaia  and  the 
studies  of  Lechat  on  Attic  sculpture  before  Pheidias  have  advanced  our 
knowledge  of  this  particular  field. 


CHAPTER    X. 
GREEK  SCULPTURE.— CONTINUED. 

DEVELOPED    IONIC    AND    DORIC   SCULPTURE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  Besides  the  general  histories  of 
Greek  sculpture,  consult :  Baumeister,  Denkmdler des  klassischen 
Altertums  :  Articles,  Olympia,  Parthenon,  Pheidias,  Polykleitos. 
Collignon,  Pheidias.  Conze,  Die  attischen  Grabreliefs.  Flasch, 
Der  Parthenon-fries,  Furtwangler,  Masterpieces  of  Greek  Sculp- 
ture. Hamdy-Bey  et  Theo.  Reinach,  Une  Ntcropole  Royale  a 
Sidon.  Kekule,  Die  Reliefs  an  der  Balustrade  der  Athena  Nike. 
Lessing,  Laokoon.  Michaelis,  Der  Parthenon.  Petersen,  Die 
Kunst  des  Pheidias.  Treu,  Die  Bildwerke  in  Stein  und  Thon, 
forming  Vol.  III.  of  the  official  publication  on  Olympia. 
Waldstein,  Essays  on  the  Art  of  Pheidias. 

THE  IONIAN  SCHOOL.  In  the  early  part  of  the  fifth  century 
the  technique  of  marble  sculpture  had  been  so  far  mastered  as 
to  permit  much  freer  expression  of  individual  character  and 
sentiment.  The  difference  in  temperament  between  the  Ionian 
and  Doric  races  was  now  more  fully  marked.  This  difference 
would  have  been  even  greater,  but  for  the  uniting  influence  of 
the  wars  against  the  Persians  and  the  concentration  of  artistic 
interests  in  Athens.  The  Ionian  schools  suffered  the  severer 
shock  from  Persian  devastation,  while  the  remoter  Dorians  rose 
to  their  greatest  strength.  Even  the  Athenian  sculptors  sought 
instruction  in  Doric  schools. 

Apart  from  the  influence  exerted  by  Pheidias,  the  two  sculp- 
tors who  did  most  to  preserve  Ionic  traditions  in  this  fifth  cen- 
tury were  Kalamis  and  Kresilas.  Kalamis  (fl.  460-445  B.C.), 
oossibly  of  Samian  origin,  was  the  earlier  and  more  thoroughly 


GREEK   SCULPTURE. 


95 


Ionian  sculptor.  He  worked  with  equal  ease  in  bronze,  mar- 
ble, or  gold  and  ivory,  and  was  a  popular  sculptor  of  divini- 
ties. The  Apollo  Alexikakos,  which  he  made  for  Athens,  and 
his  Hermes  Kriophoros  at  Tanagra  appear  to  have  been  dis- 
tinguished for  gracefulness.  Lucian  praises  the  bashful 
demeanor,  the  unconscious  and  modest  smile,  and  the  well- 
ordered  and  becoming  drapery  of  his  Sosandra.  Thus,  in  the 
hands  of  Kalamis,  the 
Ionian  draped  female 
statue  reached  the  stage 
when  expressive  feeling  was 
as  much  the  sculptor's  aim 
as  bodily  form. 

Kresilas  (circa  480-410 
B.C.),  though  of  Cretan 
origin  and  a  worker  in 
bronze,  is  to  be  classed 
with  the  Ionian  sculptors, 
since  he  also  valued  the 
expression  of  sentiment 
above  that  of  bodily 
strength.  This  would  seem 
to  be  evident  from  his  suc- 
cess in  representing  a  Wounded  Man,  and  an  Amazon  made  for 
the  temple  at  Ephesos.  His  portraits,  as  exemplified  in  the 
bust  of  Perikles,  were  also  of  a  character  to  please  the  most 
refined  Attic  taste. 

THE  DORIC  SCHOOL.  Doric  sculpture  in  the  fifth  century  is 
best  represented  by  the  works  of  Pythagoras  of  Rhegion  (fl. 
484-460  B.C.)  and  of  Polykleitos  of  Argos  (fl.  460-420  B.C.). 
The  activity  of  Pythagoras  lay  in  the  first  half  of  this  century 
and  that  of  Polykleitos  chiefly  in  the  second.  Both  were  emi- 
nent as  sculptors  of  athletes.  The  nude  male  type  reached,  in 
their  hands,  a  high  degree  of  development.  Pythagoras  was  a 
Samian  by  birth,  but  his  work  was  essentially  Doric.  He  is 


FIG.    35. —  HEAD     OF     THE      HERMES     BV     PRAX- 
ITELES.     OLVMPIA. 


96  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

said  by  Pliny  to  have  been  eminent  for  the  expression  of  mus- 
cles and  veins,  and  for  improved  methods  of  representing  the 
hair.  Diogenes  Laertius  quotes  him  as  especially  successful  in 
the  proportions  and  rhythmical  character  of  his  work.  The 
latter  quality  apparently  meant  the  flowing  lines  which  were 
now  introduced,  in  opposition  to  the  stiff  parallelism  of  archaic 
statuary.  Wrestlers,  boxers,  runners,  pancratiasts,  were  accu- 
rately distinguished ;  bodily  pose  as  well  as  muscular  develop- 
ment was  expressed  with  almost  perfect  freedom.  There  was 
doubtless  a  touch  of  Ionic  gracefulness  in  the  Doric  statues  of 
Pythagoras. 

In  the  mean  time  the  old  school  of  bronze-workers  at  Argos 
continued  to  be  a  centre  of  academic  training.  Myron  from 
Northern  Greece  and  Pheidias  from  Athens  attended  the 
school  of  Ageladas  at  Argos.  But  the  old  traditions  were 
more  thoroughly  represented  in  the  work  of  the  native  sculptor, 
Polykleitos.  His  statue,  called  the  Doryphoros,  of  a  victo- 
rious athlete  holding  a  spear  over  his  shoulder,  is  typical  of 
the  highest  development  of  purely  Doric  sculpture  in  one  of 
the  oldest  schools.  Strong  muscular  form,  without  exaggera- 
tion, was  here  brought  to  such  a  stage  of  perfection  as  to  fur- 
nish a  canon,  or  norm,  of  proportions  suitable  for  all  similar 
works.  Polykleitos  is  said  by  Galen  to  have  reduced  to  writ- 
ing a  canon  of  the  ideal  relations  of  finger  to  finger,  of  the 
fingers  to  the  hand,  of  the  hand  to  the  wrist,  of  the  wrist  to 
the  elbow,  of  the  elbow  to  the  arm,  and  so  on  throughout  the 
whole  body.  There  is  some  reason  to  believe  that  a  scale  of 
proportions,  somewhat  different  in  character,  was  employed 
also  in  early  Doric  and  Attic  sculpture,  but  no  school  is  likely 
to  have  had  as  rigid  followers  of  mathematical  formulas  as  the 
school  of  Argos.  The  Diadumenos,  or  athlete  binding  the 
fillet  on  his  head,  was  probably  made  by  Polykleitos  at  a  later 
period  of  his  career,  as  in  the  copies  remaining  to  us  the  atti- 
tude is  less  rigid-,  the  forms  rounder,  and  the  hair  is  treated  in 
a  more  plastic  fashion.  Other  athletic  statues  by  Polykleitos, 


GREEK  SCULPTURE. 


97 


if  we  may  judge  from  the  bases  inscribed  with  his  name  at 

Olympia,  did  not  vary  greatly  in  type.     Of  statues  of  the  gods 

he  seems  to  have  made  few ;  but  one,  the  ivory  and  gold  statue 

of    Hera  for   the   temple   at 

Argos,  became    the    standard 

for  subsequent  representations 

of  that   goddess.     Several  of 

the   decorative   sculptures  of 

that  temple,   perhaps  by  the 

scholars  of  Polykleitos,  have 

been    recently   recovered    by 

the   American   School    of 

Classical  Studies  at  Athens. 

TEMPLE  SCULPTURES  AT 
OLYMPIA.  The  metopes  and 
pedi mental  sculptures  of  the 
Zeus  temple  at  Olympia  illus- 
trate the  fusion  of  the  Doric 
and  Ionic  spirit  which  espe- 
cially characterized  the  Attic 
school .  Doric  forms  and 
costumes  occur  in  conjunction 
with  Ionic  methods  of  com- 
position. The  metopes,  repre- 
senting the  twelve  labors  of 
Herakles,  show  considerable 
ingenuity  in  the  variation  of 
the  lines  of  composition. 
These  are  in  most  cases  sim- 
ple and  rigid,  and  symmetri- 
cal enough  to  be  classed  as 
Doric;  but  occasionally,  as  in  the  metope  representing  Her- 
akles and  the  Stymphalian  birds,  the  Ionic  pictorial  frieze- 
method  was  adopted.  The  pediments  illustrate  still  better 
the  fusion  of  Doric  and  Ionic  elements.  In  the  eastern  pedi- 
7 


FIG.    36. — FAUN    AFTER    PRAXITELES. 
VATICAN. 


98  HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 

ment,  the  chariot  race  between  Oinomaos  and  Pelops  is  Doric 
in  composition.  The  figures  are  independent  of  each  other, 
and  the  two  sides  of  the  pediment  balance  as  rigidly  as  at 
-^gina.  But  the  backs  of  the  figures  are  not  finished,  and 
their  slight  thickness  betrays  the  influence  of  Ionic  methods. 
The  western  pediment,  representing  the  contest  of  Lapiths  and 
Centaurs  at  the  marriage  feast  of  Peirithoos,  is  Ionic  in  com- 
position as  well  as  treatment.  It  involves  organic  groups, 
and  may  be  described  as  a  frieze  composition  applied  to  the 
triangular  gable.  The  sculptor  or  sculptors  of  these  pedi- 
ments were  probably  of  Peloponnesian  origin  and  trained  in 
the  Attic  school. 

MYBON.  The  transformation  of  the  Doric  by  the  Athenian 
spirit  is  well  illustrated  by  the  works  of  Myron  (circa  492-430 
B.C.),  a  native  of  Boiotia,  trained  at  Argos,  who  afterward 
became  an  Athenian.  In  his  hands  strength  and  energy  and 
bodily  form  ceased  to  be  ends  in  themselves;  and  were  no 
longer  subject  to  schematic  regulation.  Myron's  aim  was 
essentially  naturalistic.  He  represented  the  Discus-thrower 
and  the  Runner  in  their  most  characteristic  attitudes.  His  Cow 
was  considered  so  life-like  as  almost  to  be  mistaken  for  reality. 
His  Athene  and  Marsyas  formed  a  group  impressive,  first  of  all, 
for  its  meaning.  We  no  longer  think  of  the  nude  male  and 
the  draped  female,  nor  of  Doric  and  Ionic  qualities.  His 
work  was  broadly  Greek,  transcending  local  schools.  Myron's 
style  was  more  varied  and  original  than  that  of  Polykleitos, 
and  his  spirit  less  academic  and  traditional.  He  opened  the 
way  for  the  grand  style  of  Pheidias.  The  influence  of  Myron 
may  be  recognized  in  the  sculptures  of  the  so-called  Theseion. 
The  pediments  contained  compositions  arranged  on  different 
principles  :  the  eastern  pediment  followed  the  Peloponnesian 
manner  and  had  a  middle  figure;  in  the  western  pediment  this 
figure  was  replaced  by  a  group.  Of  the  metopes,  eighteen  were 
sculptured  with  scenes  from  the  struggles  of  Herakles  and  of 
Theseus ;  the  remaining  fifty  were  probably  decorated  with  paint- 


GREEK  SCULPTURE. 


99 


ings  of  similar  groups.  Whether  an  attempt  was  made  to  unify 
the  compositions  on  the  long  sides  of  the  temple,  it  is  now 
impossible  to  determine.  The 
style  of  the  sculptured  metopes 
reveals  the  varied  action  char- 
acteristic of  Myron,  is  more 
refined  than  that  of  the  metopes 
of  the  Zeus  temple  at  Olympia, 
and  is  equal  to  that  of  the  older 
metopes  of  the  Parthenon.  The 
frieze  shows  the  same  character- 
istics, and  foreshadows  the 
principles  of  composition  which 
are  brought  to  such  perfection 
in  the  Parthenon  frieze. 

PHEIDIAS  AND  HIS  SCHOOL. 
After  Myron,  it  is  more  difficult 
to  trace  the  distinctions  between 
Doric  and  Ionic  sculptures.  The 
Attic  style,  having  united  the 
best  elements  from  both  sources, 
superseded  all  others.  This  was 
due  not  so  much  to  the  political 
eminence  of  Athens  as  to  the 
superiority  of  her  artists.  The 
greatest  of  these  was  Pheidias 
(circa  488-432  B.C.).  His  ca- 
reer reached  its  highest  develop- 
ment under  the  protection  of 
Perikles,  from  the  year  449  B.C. 
until  his  death  in  432  B.C.  ;  but 
many  important  works  were  exe- 
cuted during  the  rule  of  Kimon. 
If  we  may  accept  the  testimony  of  Pliny,  Pheidias  began 
his  career  as  a  painter,  but  soon  turned  his  attention  to 


KODITE   OK    MELOS. 
JUVKE. 


IOO  HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 

sculpture,  at  first  under  Hegias  of  Athens,  then  undei 
Ageladas  of  Argos.  Sculptural  rather  than  pictorial  con- 
siderations determined  the  character  of  his  work.  His  early 
training  enabled  him  to  attain  success  in  chryselephantine 
work  and  in  bronze.  To  the  former  class  belong  an  Athene 
at  Pellene,  an  Aphrodite  Ourania  for  a  small  temple  in  Elis, 
and  his  later  and  more  celebrated  Zeus  at  Olympia  and  Athene 
Parthenos  at  Athens.  Of  his  bronze  works  his  Athene  Proma- 
chos  and  the  Lemnian  Athene,  the  former  famous  for  its  size 
and  the  latter  for  its  beauty,  were  probably  both  executed 
under  the  rule  of  Kimon.  His  marble  works  belong  chiefly  to 
his  later  period.  Of  these  may  be  mentioned  the  Amazon 
for  the  temple  of  Artemis  at  Ephesos,  an  Aphrodite,  and  the 
decorative  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon  for  Athens. 

It  is  difficult  to  bring  the  work  of  Pheidias  into  comparison 
with  what  had  gone  before,  so  marked  is  the  advance  in  concep- 
tion, in  treatment,  and  in  artistic  power.  He  seems  to  have 
torn  the  veil  from  Olympos  and  revealed  to  us  the  gods  in  all 
their  grandeur.  His  Zeus  exercised  a  lasting  influence  upon  the 
ancient  world,  as  did  also  his  Athene  Parthenos.  The  majesty, 
dignity,  and  elevated  beauty  of  his  conceptions  gave  to  his 
work  an  ideal,  poetic  character,  even  in  the  few  instances  in 
which  he  dealt  with  purely  athletic  subjects.  His  Pelopon- 
nesian  training  gave  him  a  thorough  knowledge  of  proportions 
and  bodily  form.  But  his  treatment  was  more  thoroughly 
plastic,  atod  made  its  appeal  by  the  total  mass  rather  than  by  its 
details.  His  figures  were  naturalistic,  not  mere  anatomical 
studies ;  and  his  drapery  was  no  longer  stiff  and  conventional, 
but  fell  in  natural  folds  and  revealed  rather  than  obscured  the 
form  beneath. 

In  the  metopes,  the  frieze,  and  pedimental  sculptures  of  the 
Parthenon  we  can  best  study  Pheidias's  ability  in  plastic  com- 
position. The  decoration  with  sculpture  in  high-relief  of 
ninety-two  metopes,  thirty-two  on  each  of  the  longer  and 
fourteen  on  each  of  the  shorter  sides  of  the  building,  presented 


GREEK   SCULPTURE. 


101 


a  problem  as  yet  untried.  And  yet,  as  well  as  may  be  judged 
from  their  present  condition,  he  succeeded  in  giving  on  each 
side  of  the  temple  a  united  effect  with  varied  individual  parts. 
The  frieze  was  even  more 
effective  as  a  triumph  in  the 
art  of  composition.  It  was 
a  narrow  band,  about  four 
feet  high  and  five  hundred 
and  twenty-three  feet  in 
length,  encircling  the  tem- 
ple cella  at  a  height  of 
thirty-nine  feet  from  the 
stylobate.  The  Panathe- 
naic  procession  here  repre- 
sented begins  on  the  western 
end  of  the  temple,  and,  with 
its  various  elements — horse- 
men, chariots,  musicians, 
and  participants  in  the  sac- 
rifices— proceeds  along  the 
northern  and  southern  sides, 
until  at  the  eastern  end  is 
represented  the  head  of  the 
procession,  the  waiting 
magistrates,  the  priest  and 
priestess  of  Athene  in  the 
presence  of  the  gods.  On 
each  side  the  frieze  pre- 
sents a  composition  com- 
plete within  itself,  composed 
of  minor  unities  and  form- 
ing a  part  of  *he  greater  whole.  Through  it  all  there  is  a 
flow  of  movement,  resembling  the  crescendo  and  diminuendo 
in  music,  terminating  with  a  final  chord. 

A  similar  independence  and  artistic  power  was  displayed  in 


AFTER    LYSIPI'OS. 


102  HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 

the  two  pediments.  On  the  western  pediment  were  repre- 
sented Athene  and  Poseidon,  with  other  local  divinities  and 
heroes  closely  associated  with  the  Acropolis  ;  on  the  eastern 
pediment  the  birth  of  Athene  was  shown  as  a  fact  of  cosmic 
importance,  in  the  presence  of  Olympian  and  other  divinities. 
The  lines  of  the  pediments  were  not  allowed  to  obstruct  the 
freedom  of  the  composition,  and  sufficient  symmetry  and  bal- 
ance were  preserved  without  the  effect  of  parallelism.  In 
some  cases,  heads  of  figures  projected  above  the  gable  lines 
of  the  tympanon;  in  others,  the  imagination  was  called  upon 
to  complete  a  group  below  the  line  of  the  pediment ;  in  the 
centre  of  the  composition  was  placed  a  group,  not  a  single 
figure,  as  at  ^gina  and  Olympia.  Pheidias  thus  rose  above 
the  limitations  of  archaic  composition,  and  produced  a  freer 
method  for  all  classes  of  decorative  sculptures. 

THE  FOLLOWERS  OF  PHEIDIAS.  The  grand  style  of  Pheidias 
was  carried  on  by  his  pupils  and  associates,  Alkamenes,  Agora- 
kritos,  Kolotes,  and  others,  whose  works  now  escape  identifica- 
tion. In  the  sculptures  of  the  Erechtheion  the  Pheidian  style 
survived,  especially  in  the  majestic  figures  of  the  Porch  of  the 
Maidens.  A  number  of  funerary  reliefs  also  preserve  the  style 
of  Pheidias,  and  closely  connected  in  style  with  the  Erech- 
theion sculptures  is  the  external  frieze  of  the  little  temple  of 
Athene  Nike  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens.  The  eastern  portion 
of  the  frieze,  with  its  assembly  of  the  gods,  contained  more 
than  one  motive  derived  from  Pheidias.  In  the  scenes  of  com- 
bat represented  on  the  other  sides  we  find  a  mannerism  which 
soon  degenerated  into  lifelessness.  Of  a  different  character 
are  the  balustrade  reliefs,  with  graceful  figures  of  Nike ;  these 
already  foreshadow  the  spirit  of  fourth-century  sculpture.  Not 
far  removed  in  style  from  the  Nike  temple  frieze  is  the  figure 
of  Nike  made  by  Paionios  for  the  Messenians  and  erected  at 
Olympia.  In  style  this  figure  represents  the  transition  from 
Pheidias  to  Skopas.  The  same  transitional  character  may  be 
observed  in  the  frieze  of  the  Temple  of  Apollo,  near  Phigaleia. 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.  103 

This  frieze  repeats  the  hackneyed  contests  of  Greeks  and 
Centaurs  and  of  Greeks  and  Amazons,  and  exhibits  groups 
juxtaposed  without  organic  relation.  The  mannerism  of  the 
Nike  temple  frieze  was  here  carried  by  provincial  sculptors  to 
an  extreme. 

EXTANT  MONUMENTS.  Developed  Greek  sculpture  may  be  best 
studied  in  the  museums  of  Athens,  Olympia,  Constantinople,  Naples, 
Rome,  Berlin,  Paris,  and  London,  and  through  the  collections  of  casts  in 
rhe  Berlin.  Dresden,  Boston,  and  New  York  museums. 

NOTE.  Our  knowledge  of  the  period  during  which  Polykleitos  flour- 
ished has  been  advanced  by  the  date  of  his  statue  of  Kyniskos,  460  B.C., 
revealed  in  a  papyrus  from  Oxyrrinchus.  His  style  may  also  be  better 
appreciated  since  the  discovery  at  Delos  of  a  very  fine  replica  of  his 
Diadumenos.  This  is  published  in  the  Monuments  Plot,  III,  pi.  14. 

The  style  of  Myron  is  also  better  known  since  the  discovery  at  Castel 
Porzianio  of  a  splendid  replica  of  his  Discus-thrower,  published  by  Lan- 
ciani  in  the  Monumenti  Antichi,  XVI,  241-274. 


CHAPTER   XI. 
GREEK  SCULPTURE.— CONTINUED. 

FOURTH-CENTURY   AND   HELLENISTIC  SCULPTURE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  The  works  on  Greek  sculpture 
before  mentioned.  Also :  Baumeister,  Denkmaler,  articles 
Mausoleum,  Pergamon,  Praxiteles,  Skopas.  Brunn,  Ueber  die 
kunstgeschichtliche  Stellung  der  pergamenischen  Gigantomachie. 
Comparetti  e  De  Petra,  La  Villa  Ercolanese.  Hauser,  Die 
neuattischen  Reliefs.  Schreiber,  Hellenistische  Relief bilder.  Ur- 
lichs,  Skopas'  Leben  imd  Werke. 

FOURTH-CENTURY  SCULPTURE.  Perikles's  dream  of  a  polit- 
ical Greece  under  Athenian  rule  could  not  be  realized.  Polit- 
ical supremacy,  after  the  Peloponnesian  war  (431-405  B.C.) 
went  to  Sparta,  then  to  Thebes,  and  finally  to  Macedon ;  but 
Athens  still  remained  the  centre  of  literary  and  artistic 
accomplishment.  The  fourth  century  witnessed  the  decline 
of  state  power  and  the  rise  of  that  of  the  individual ;  the 
weakening  of  supernatural  conceptions  in  religion  and  a 
strengthening  of  naturalistic  beliefs;  and,  finally,  a  general 
development  in  the  direction  of  cosmopolitanism. 

The  most  distinguished  sculptors  of  this  century  were 
Skopas,  Praxiteles,  and  Lysippos,  whose  styles  may  be  taken 
roughly  as  representative  of  the  early,  middle,  and  late  por- 
tions of  the  century. 

SKOPAS  (fl.  360  B.C.)  in  his  early  works  resembled  Paionios 
and  the  sculptor  of  the  Nike  temple  frieze,  who  represented 
accentuated  movement.  He  decorated  both  pediments  of  the 
temple  of  Athena  Alea,  at  Tegea  (395  B.C.),  with  excited  com- 


GREEK   SCULPTURE.  105 

positions,  one  being  the  hunt  of  the  Kalydonian  boar,  the 
other  the  combat  between  Telephos  and  Achilles.  The  heads 
of  heroes,  which  have  been  recovered  in  the  excavations  at  this 
temple,  show  that  this  quality  extended  to  facial  expression  as 


FIG.    39.— THE    HARNESE    BULL.      NAPLES. 


well  as  to  bodily  form.  A  stronger  example  of  the  same  ten- 
dency is  to  be  looked  for  in  his  Bacchante,  where  he  is  said  to 
have  breathed  divine  frenzy  into  the  marble.  Something  of 
the  violence  of  the  Bacchante  is  preserved  to  us  in  the  Amazon 


106  HISTORY   OP  SCULPTURE. 

frieze  from  the  Mausoleum  at  Halikarnassos  (350  B.C.),  upon 
which  Skopas  was  employed.  According  to  Pliny,  Skopas 
wrought  the  sculptures  on  the  eastern  side  of  this  mausoleum, 
Bryaxis  (fl.  350-312  B.C.)  on  the  north,  Timotheos  on  the  south, 
and  Leochares  (circa  372-324  B.C.)  on  the  west.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  find  that  the  sculptures  excavated  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  mausoleum  are  of  finer  quality  than  the  others.  The  com- 
position is  at  once  simpler  and  more  expressive ;  the  figures 
are  fewer  in  number,  but  massed  against  each  other  with  great 
effectiveness.  There  is  also  in  the  figures  attributed  to  Skopas 
a  vigorous,  living  quality,  and  a  preponderance  of  nude  forms. 

In  other  portions  of  the  frieze  we  find  juxtaposed  groups  and 
mannered  drapery  hardly  superior  in  style  to  the  frieze  from 
the  Apollo  Temple,  near  Phigaleia.  The  difference  in  date 
between  the  Tegean  sculptures  and  those  of  the  Mausoleum 
indicate  a  long  period  of  activity  for  Skopas,  which  may  be 
divided  into  a  Peloponnesian  period,  in  which  he -seems  to 
have  perpetuated  the  traditions  of  Polykleitos  ;  an  Athenian 
period,  in  which  were  developed  refinements  of  his  style;  and 
an  Asia  Minor  period,  in  which,  as  in  the  productions  of  a 
virtuoso,  there  is  already  evident  something  of  a  struggle  for 
effect. 

PEAXITELES  (fl.  350  B.C.)  is  the  central  figure  in  Greek 
sculpture  of  the  fourth  century.  Somewhat  younger  than 
Skopas,  he  represented  more  fully  the  ideals  of  graceful, 
domestic  beauty,  which  had  replaced  the  more  heroic  concep- 
tions of  the  preceding  century.  While  Skopas  perpetuated 
the  traditions  of  action  and  movement,  Praxiteles  was  the 
sculptor  of  rest.  He  was  varied  in  conception,  inventive  of 
new  forms,  accomplished  in  technique.  Nearly  fifty  of  his 
works  are  mentioned  by  ancient  authors.  These  involve  a 
number  of  groups  of  two  or  three  divinities,  many  single  fig- 
ures of  divinities,  and  a  few  of  human  subjects.  Though  not 
exclusively  occupied  with  marble,  he  was,  like  Skopas,  emi- 
nently a  marble  sculptor.  Delicate  modulations  of  surface 


GREEK   SCULPTURE.  IO/ 

and  a  massive  treatment  of  form  replaced  the  sharper  contrasts 
necessitated  by  the  use  of  bronze.  His  preference  for  nude  and 
youthful  forms  suggests  the  probability  that  his  early  works  fol- 
lowed the  line  of  Polykleitan  traditions.  But  he  freed  the 
standing  figure  from  the  somewhat  constrained  attitude  of  the 
Doryphoros,  and  gave  it  an  easy,  graceful  pose,  often  placing 
it  against  a  tree-trunk  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  to  the  chief 
line  of  the  body  a  rhythmical  curve.  The  proportions  of  the 
figure  became  in  his  hands  more  refined  and  slender,  and  an 
oval  replaced  the  square  face  of  Polykleitos.  His  figure  of 
Hermes  carrying  the  youthful  Dionysos,  found  at  Olympia  in 
1877,  enables  us  to  judge  of  his  style  by  means  of  an  undoubted 
original.  In  this  group  we  see  a  graceful  but  dignified  com- 
position, marvellous  technical  excellence,  and  a  masterful 
expression  of  individual  character.  The  Hermes  was  probably 
not  a  very  early  nor  yet  a  late  work,  but  one  which  represented 
the  sculptor  in  his  prime.  The  reliefs  from  the  base  of  his 
group  of  divinities  at  Mantineia,  made  probably  from  his 
designs,  may  be  taken  as  representing  his  earlier  style.  They 
resemble  the  work  of  Kephisodotos  and  of  Silanion.  The 
divinities  represented  in  the  works  of  Praxiteles  are  chiefly 
those  of  the  second  order.  Praxiteles  may  be  said  to  have 
established  the  type  for  Eros  and  the  Satyr,  conceiving  them 
anew  in  forms  of  youth  and  beauty.  He  also  gave  new  beauty 
to  Aphrodite  in  his  statues  of  that  goddess  (undraped)  at 
Knidos  and  (draped)  at  Kos.  The  weakness  of  the  art  of 
Praxiteles  lay  in  its  tendency  to  exaggerate  the  quality  of 
refinement  and  grace.  In  the  Sauroktonos  and  similar  statues 
Apollo  lost  his  manly  quality  and  appeared  as  a  boyish,  effemi- 
nate divinity. 

LYSIPP08  (fl.  330  B.C.)  was  the  most  prolific  sculptor  of  the 
fourth  century.  His  aim  appears  to  have  been  to  produce  an 
effect.  This  he  accomplished  sometimes  by  emphatic  size,  as 
in  the  colossal  statues  of  Zeus  and  of  Herakles  for  Tarentum, 
and  the  diminutive  statue  of  Herakles  Epitrapezios ;  some- 


io8 


HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 


times  by  individual  characterization,  as  in  the  striking  por- 
traits he  made  of  Alexander  and  his  generals.  Again,  he 
appears  to  have  resorted  to  picturesque  modes  of  composition, 
as  in  the  battle-group  of  Alexander  at  Granikos  or  in  the  hunt- 
ing scene  set  up  at  Delphi.  A  native  of  Sikyon,  he  repre- 
sented the  fourth-century  bloom  of  Peloponnesian  sculpture. 
His  departure  from  the  Polykleitan  canon,  which  he  is  said  to 
have  taken  as  his  guide,  is  strongly  marked ;  his  statue,  the 
Apoxyomenos,  or  athlete  scraping  himself,  embodied  a  new 


FIG.    40. — THE,   DYING   GAUL.      CAPITOL,    ROME, 

scheme  of  proportions.  Other  sculptors — Praxiteles,  Silanion, 
and  Euphranor — had  contributed  to  the  formation  of  slenderer 
proportions ;  but  Lysippos  pushed  this  tendency  further,  and 
made  a  small  round  head  and  long  limbs  emphatic  elements  ot 
style.  Thus  Lysippos  represented  the  ebbing  glory  of  fourth- 
century  sculpture. 

DOMESTIC  AND  CIVIC  SCULPTURE.  The  fourth  century  ex- 
tended the  field  of  sculpture  to  the  civic  and  domestic  spheres 
of  life.  Evidence  of  this  is  found  in  the  frieze  of  the  cho- 
ragic  monument  of  Lysikrates  (335  B.C.),  with  its  legendary, 
lyric  theme  of  Tyrrhenian  robbers  cast  into  the  sea;  also  in 


GREEK   SCULPTURE.  109 

the  statues  of  philosophers  and  poets  which  decorated  the 
theatres  and  public  places.  The  tombstones  of  Athens,  with 
their  scenes  of  every-day  life  or  of  tender  farewells,  also 
experienced  a  rapid  development  in  this  century ;  as  well  as 
the  terracotta  figurines  of  domestic  subjects,  whether  made  in 
Tanagra,  Asia  Minor,  or  Sicily.  The  influence  of  the  best 
Athenian  sculpture  was  felt  over  a  wide  region.  From  Southern 
Italy  have  been  recovered  the  Siris  bronzes,  showing  extraor- 
dinarily skilful  workmanship.  From  Melos  came  a  majestic 
head  of  Asklepios,  and  that  archetype  of  graceful  beauty,  the 
Aphrodite  of  Melos,  which  some  recent  writers  would  have  us 
assign  to  the  second  century  B.C.  From  Knidos  came  a  Deme- 
ter  of  dignified  beauty  and  pathos  ;  from  Ephesos  a  sculptured 
column-drum,  recording  the  sad  story  of  Alkestis.  Far-away 
Armenia  has  given  us  a  fourth-century  bronze  head,  which  pre- 
serves the  qualities  for  which  the  Aphrodites  of  Praxiteles  were 
celebrated.  And,  finally,  Sidon  has  yielded  magnificent  sar- 
cophagi with  sculptured  reliefs  of  the  best  fourth-century  type. 
Four  of  these,  in  the  Constantinople  Museum,  are  of  special 
interest.  The  oldest  sarcophagus  is  in  style  somewhat  sug- 
gestive of  the  pediments  of  Olympia,  and  may  perhaps  be 
referred  to  the  late  fifth  century.  The  so-called  Lykian  Sar- 
cophagus is  finer  than  anything  Lykia  had  produced.  Its  very 
spirited  composition  has  analogies  with  the  Theseion  frieze 
and  other  Athenian  sculptures.  The  figures  on  the  Sarcophagus 
of  the  Mourners  resemble  the  Muses  on  the  base  of  the  group 
of  statues  by  Praxiteles  at  Mantineia.  The  reliefs  on  the 
Large  Sarcophagus  represent  a  lion-hunt,  and  one  of  Alexan- 
der's battles,  possibly  that  of  Issos.  The  fine  proportions, 
delicate  moulding,  vigorous  reliefs,  and  original  coloring  of 
this  sarcophagus  make  it  one  of  the  most  important  monu- 
ments in  the  history  of  Greek  sculpture.  It  was  at  first  de- 
scribed as  the  sarcophagus  of  Alexander,  but  is  now  with 
greater  probability  thought  to  be  the  sarcophagus  of  Laome- 
don,  satrap  of  Babylonia,  Syria,  and  Phoenicia. 


110  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 

HELLENISTIC  SCULPTURE  (323-133  B.C.).  The  death  of 
Alexander  in  323  B.C.  left  the  Greeks  in  possession  of  the  civi- 
lized world,  without  the  centralized  power  to  maintain  a  king- 
dom of  such  wide  extent.  It  was  inevitable  that  separate 
kingdoms  should  be  founded,  as  by  the  Ptolemies  in  Egypt, 
the  Attalidse  at  Pergamon,  the  Seleukidae  in  Syria  and  Meso- 
potamia. It  was  inevitable,  also,  that  Greek  art  should  become 
modified  in  different  localities  bycontact  with  the  older  civi- 
lizations. The  monuments  of  this  locality,  viewed  as  a  whole, 
should  fall  into  large  classes,  such  as  Graeco- Egyptian,  Graeco- 
Asiatic,  and  Graeco -Persian. 

GRECO-EGYPTIAN  art  is  characterized  by  the  intermingling 
of  Egyptian  and  Greek  motives,  as  also  by  the  development 
of  the  pictorial  form  of  relief.  Jupiter  Ammon,  the  Greek 
Isis,  the  Hermaphrodite,  the  personification  of  the  Nile, 
the  Negro,  the  more  frequent  use  of  the  Sphinx,  may  be 
traced  to  this  source.  Relief  sculpture,  as  used  in  Alexandria, 
and  which  found  its  way  to  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum,  now 
made  use  of  landscape  backgrounds  and  other  picturesque 
details  which  were  foreign  to  earlier  and  more  exclusively 
Greek  methods. 

GBJECO-ASIATIC  art,  as  represented  at  Pergamon,  Rhodes,  and 
Tralles,  showed  a  change  in  spirit  rather  than  in  form.  A  new 
vigor,  excited  possibly  by  conflict  with  the  Gauls  and  a  prefer- 
ence for  showy,  striking  themes,  characterized  the  art  of  this 
locality.  The  sculptures  from  Pergamon  bear  witness  that 
Greek  artists  still  retained  the  highest  technical  excellence. 
These  sculptures  fall  into  two  classes  :  (i)  Those  referable  to 
the  time  of  Attalos  I.  (241-197  B.C.)  and  (2)  those  of  Eume- 
nes  II.  (197-159  B.C.).  To  the  former  class  belong  a  series 
of  statues  representing  fallen  Gauls,  Persians,  Amazons,  and 
Giants,  probably  copies  of  a  bronze  group  sent  by  Attalos  to 
Athens.  A  marble  original,  the  famous  Dying  Gaul,  formerly 
known  as  the  Dying  Gladiator,  is  a  fine  example  of  this  class. 
The  sculptures  of  Eumenes  are  represented  by  extensive  remains 


GREEK   SCULPTURE. 


Ill 


of  two  friezes  from  the  great  altar  of  Zeus  at  Pergamon.  The 
larger  frieze  portrayed  the  Gigantomachy,  and  the  smaller  the 
history  of  Telephos,  the  legendary  founder  of  Pergamon. 
These  friezes  exhibit  advanced  anatomical  knowledge,  origi- 
nality and  variety  in  design,  and  extremely  vigorous  action. 
Several  famous  statues  of  this  period — the  Apollo  Belvidere,  the 
Diana  of  Versailles,  the  torso  of  the  Belvidere,  and  the  Lao- 
coon — show  such  strong  analogies  to  certain  groups  in  these 
friezes  as  to  enable  us  to  associate  them  in  the  same  general 


FIG.  41. — ATHENE  CROUP  FROM  ALTAR  AT  PERGAMON.   BERLIN. 

class.  The  names  of  several  sculptors  who  worked  at  Per- 
gamon are  known.  They  are  Isigonos,  Pyromachos,  Strato- 
nikos,  Antiochos,  Praxiteles,  Xenokrates,  Athenaios.  and 
Epigonos. 

The  group  of  the  Laocoon,  a  typical  example  of  emotional 
sculpture,  was  executed  by  three  Rhodian  sculptors,  Agesan- 
dros,  Polydoros,  and  Athenodoros.  It  can  be  assigned  to  the 
same  general  class  as  the  Pergamene  sculptures,  and  does  not 
differ  from  them  sufficiently  to  be  made  the  basis  for  a  distinct 
Rhodian  school. 


112  HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 

Somewhat  further  removed  in  type  is  the  group  known  as  the 
Farnese  Bull,  by  Apollonios  and  Tauriskos  of  Tralles.  Here 
an  elaborate  story  is  told  in  a  complex  group.  A  dramatic 
moment  is  selected  in  which  Zethos  and  Amphion  are  about  to 
fasten  to  a  wild  bull  Queen  Dirke,  the  oppressor  of  their  mother 
Antiope.  The  group  was  probably  designed  for  an  open  park, 
and  was  intended  to  be  seen  from  ail  points  of  view.  This 
involved  principles  of  composition  for  which  Greek  sculpture 
had  furnished  few  examples.  But,  aside  from  this,  the  group 
is  overcrowded  with  incident  and  displays  pictorial  methods 
in  sculpture.  Emotional,  dramatic  sculpture,  a  straining  for 
effect,  seemed  to  be  demanded  by  the  spirit  of  the  time'-. 

GRJECO-PERSIAN  sculpture  may  be  looked  for  where  Persian 
influences  had  previously  prevailed.  We  recognize  this  mixed 
art  in  many  of  the  objects  from  the  Cimmerian  Bosphoros 
and  from  Northern  Russia.  In  the  relief  sculptures  of  Hel- 
lenistic temples  or  tomb  fagades  in  Asia  Minor  we  frequently 
see  Persian  motives,  such  as  the  Lion  attacking  the  Bull,  the 
Chimaera  with  sharply  curved  wings,  the  Horned  Lion.  In 
Delos  we  find  columns  with  bull-headed  capitals;  and  in  the 
Propylaia,  at  Eleusis,  reliefs  and  goat-headed  capitals  which 
may  be  described  as  Graeco-Persian.  In  Antioch  in  Syria  has 
been  discovered  a  beautiful  sarcophagus,  with  reliefs  of  Graeco- 
Persian  lions  attacking  bulls. 

EXTANT  MONUMENTS.  Originals  by  Skopas  are  in  Athens  and  the 
British  Museum  ;  the  Hermes  of  Praxiteles  is  at  Olympia,  the  Aphrodite 
of  Melos  in  the  Louvre  ;  the  Sidon  sarcophagi  are  in  Constantinople,  the 
Pergamene  sculptures  at  Berlin.  Hellenistic  sculpture  abounds  in  the 
museums  of  Italy. 

NOTE.  Among  the  most  important  accessions  for  a  knowledge  of  this 
period  may  be  mentioned  a  fine  replica  of  the  Eirene  of  Kephisodotos,  now 
in  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York;  a  marble  replica  of  the  Agias 
of  Lysippos,  in  the  Museum  at  Delphi;  and  a  fine  bronze  statue  in  the 
Museum  at  Athens  found  in  the  sea  off  the  north  coast  of  the  island  of 
Antikythera. 


CHAPTER    XII. 
ITALIC    AND    ETRUSCAN    SCULPTURE. 

BOOKS  RECOMM- ENDED.  Annati,  Bnllettitio  e  Monumenti 
deir  Istituto  di  Correspondenza  Archeologica.  Brunn  and  Korte, 
I  Riliein  delle  Urnc  Etrusche.  Dennis,  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of 
Etruria.  Falchi^,  Vetulonia.  Inghirami,  Monumenti  Etruschi. 
Martha,  L1  Art  Etrusqtie.  Micali,  Monumenti  per  serrire  alia 
Storia  degli  Antichi  Popoli  Italiani ;  Monumenti  Inediti.  Mi lani , 
I  Frontoni  di  un  Tempio  Toscanico.  Monumenti  Antichi  (Acad. 
Lincei).  Museo  Gregoriano.  Museo  Italiatw  di  Antichita 
C/assica,  1884.  Notizie  degli  Scavi  di  Antichita.  Zannoni, 
Scari  de!!a  Ccrtosa. 

ANCIENT  ITALY  AND  ITS  SCULPTURE.  The  history  of  Italy 
until  two  centuries  after  the  foundation  of  Rome  still  remains 
extremely  obscure.  The  peoples  that  inhabited  it,  the  time  of 
their  advent  into  the  peninsula,  the  circumstances  of  their  pro- 
gress and  decline,  their  relation  to  each  other,  are  all  largely  a 
matter  of  conjecture,  based  either  upon  literature,  tradition,  or 
archaeological  evidence.  We  can  hardly  state  more  than  that 
there  were  from  the  earliest  times  two  currents  of  emigration, 
one  by  land  from  the  north  and  the  other  by  sea  from  the 
south  ;  that  the  land  invaders  were  probably  the  more  numerous 
and  certainly  the  least  civilized;  that  the  Oriental  and  Greek 
civilizing  influences  came  in  periodic  waves,  through  immigra- 
tion and  commerce,  and  powerfully  affected  the  less  civilized 
races. 

There  is  but  little  unity  in  the  pre-Roman  sculpture  of  Italy, 
in  its  styles,  its  subjects,  its  methods,  or  its  growth.     The  char- 
acter of  the  monuments  first  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  inhab 
8 


HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 


itants  by  means  of  commerce  was  not  calculated  to  develop 
the  sentiment  for  monumental  sculpture,  or  to  relate  the  art 
integrally  to  the  life  of  the  people.  Nor  was  there  any  plastic 
sense  among  the  Italic  tribes,  the  Etruscans,  or  the  native 
tribes  of  Hellenic  origin.  Sculpture,  when  developed,  was 
essentially  utilitarian  and  had  little  aesthetic  mission.  It  was 
employed  to  decorate  objects  of  use  and  ornament,  and  when 
it  was  brought,  at  a  late  date,  to  the  service  of  mythology,  that 


FIO.    42. — ETRUSCAN    SARCOPHAGUS.       BRITISH    MUSEUM. 

mythology  was  but  a  transcript  of  those  scenes  from  Greek 
myths  that  seemed  to  the  Etruscans  suitable  to  illustrate  the 
life,  death,  and  future  of  their  dead. 

MATERIAL  AND  METHOD.  Bronze,  terracotta,  stone,  marble, 
and  silver  were  used  by  the  Italic  and  Etruscan  sculptors.  In 
bronze  work  the  earliest  reproductions  are  in  repoussJ  relief, 
of  which  good  examples  are  the  situlse  or  buckets,  especially 
interesting  for  the  development  of  sculpture  in  the  region  north 


ITALIC   AND    ETRUSCAN   SCULPTURE.  11$ 

of  the  Po  during  the  fifth  and  fourth  centuries,  and,  in  a  more 
advanced  style,  in  the  third  century.  The  similarity  of  the 
Tuscan  work  to  the  Greek  is  sometimes  so  great  as  to  make  it 
almost  impossible  to  distinguish  them  apart.  Terracotta  was, 
however,  the  favorite  material  for  sculpture  throughout  Central 
and  Southern  Italy  from  the  sixth  to  the  third  centuries,  and 
nowhere  can  the  sculpturesque  possibilities  of  this  material  be 
seen  so  well  exhibited  as  in  the  history  of  sculpture  in  these 
early  Italian  schools.  It  was  used  instead  of  stone  or  marble 
during  nearly  the  entire  period  for  the  temple  sculptures. 
The  gables  and  friezes  were  of  terracotta  slabs,  in  high  or  low 
relief,  fastened  to  the  wooden  framework.  Similar  reliefs 
were  used  on  a  smaller  scale  in  the  decoration  of  tombs.  The 
acroteria  and  antefixes  were  usually  figures,  busts,  or  heads,  in 
relief,  of  terracotta,  and  were  used  on  a  large  scale  throughout 
the  south  of  Italy. 

Stone  was  used  at  first  mainly  in  connection  with  funerary 
sculptures.  At  least  as  early  as  600  n.c.  reclining  stone 
statues  on  funeral  beds  were  executed  for  the  domical  tomb  of 
Vetulonia.  Soon  afterward  carved  stone  stelae  were  erected  to 
mark  the  site  of  the  graves  through  a  great  part  of  Etruria. 
Not  until  late  in  the  fifth  century  does  the  use  of  large  carved 
stone  or  terracotta  sarcophagi  come  in,  and  then  only  for  a 
limited  time  and  in  a  restricted  region.  In  the  following  cen- 
tury, when  Etruscan  art  had  taken  so  overwhelming  a  Greek 
character,  it  became  the  fashion  (cremation  being  the  favorite 
rite)  to  preserve  the  ashes  of  the  deceased  in  small  oblong  mar- 
ble urns  with  covers.  The  faces  of  the  effigies  were  covered 
with  reliefs  of  funerary  significance,  and  the  rover  was  sur- 
mounted by  the  figure  of  the  deceased  individual  and  his  wife. 
The  great  mass  of  late  Etruscan  sculptures  belongs  to  this 
class  of  monuments,  which  exercised  considerable  influence 
upon  the  formation  of  Roman  sculpture,  and  then,  in  its  turn, 
was  reacted  upon  by  the  Roman  school. 

HISTOEY.     An  examination  of  the  Peninsula  as  a  whole  shows 


Il6  HISTORY    OF   SCULPTURE. 

that  the  earliest  monuments  of  sculpture  date  no  further  back 
than  the  eighth  century  B.C.,  and  that  they  are  to  be  found 
mainly  in  maritime  Tuscan  Etruria.  The  entire  region  north 
of  the  Po  was  unproductive  until  the  fifth  century,  when  it 
began  to  produce  certain  funerary  and  industrial  objects  in  a 
barbarous  style  that  can  be  divided  into  two  schools  :  the 
Euganean,  with  its  centre  at  Este,  which  was  thoroughly  inde- 
pendent, and  the  Villanova  style,  with  its  centre  at  Bologna, 
which  was  a  crude  branch  of  Etruscan  art.  These  two  schools 
remained  almost  unchanged  until  the  time  of  Roman  domina- 
tion. South  of  the  Po  we  find  that  the  present  province  of 
Tuscany,  with  part  of  Umbria  and  the  Roman  section  of  Etru- 
ria, furnished  the  great  bulk  of  sculpture  during  the  entire 
pre-Roman  period.  The  Roman  province  proper,  with  the 
cities  of  the  Sabines,  Marsi,  Volsci,  and  Hernici,  have  thus  far 
furnished  hardly  a  single  monument.  Farther  south  the  art 
was  essentially  Greek,  except  at  Capua,  which  appears  to  have 
been  a  meeting-place  .for  early  Etruscan  and  archaic  Greek 
art. 

ORIENTAL  OR  ARCHAIC  GREEK.  Confining  ourselves,  there- 
fore, to  Etruria  proper,  where  alone  we  have  a  continuous 
series  of  monuments  interesting  in  the  history  of  art,  we  find 
that  the  first  period — that  of  the  eighth,  seventh,  and  sixth 
centuries — is  essentially  Oriental  or  Archaic  Greek.  At 
that  time  Etruria  was  still  dependent  for  its  objects  of 
luxury  and  art  upon  the  Eastern  market  and  upon  the  Phoe- 
nician merchants,  especially  those  of  Carthage,  who  still 
retained  the  dominion  of  Italian  waters.  The  Etruscans  them- 
selves were  slowly  making  their  conquering  way  through  the 
cities  north  and  east  of  their  primitive  settlement  near  Monte 
Amiata.  This  movement,  begun  in  the  eighth  century,  did 
not  end  until  the  close  of  the  sixth  century,  with  the  conquest 
of  Perugia.  Clusium,  Arretium,  Volaterrae,  Ruscellae,  and 
Vetulonia  were  among  the  last  cities  to  resist  them.  In  sev- 
eral of  the  cities  of  Etruria  which  were,  according  to  tradition, 


ITALIC   AND    ETRUSCAN    SCULPTURE. 


117 


of  "  Pelasgic  "  (i.e.,  primitive  Greek)  foundation,  we  find 
monuments  apparently  antedating  the  Etruscan  conquest. 
The  Regulini-Galassi  tomb  at  Vulci,  and  other  tombs  with 
domical  or  arched 
vaults,  notably  the  re- 
cently discovered  cham- 
ber at  Vetulonia,  were 
certainly  not  the  work 
of  the  Etruscans,  whose 
tomb-chambers  invari- 
ably copied  wooden 
constructions  with  flat 
or  gabled  ceilings.  The 
contents  of  the  tombs  of 
this  class,  and  of  thou- 
sands of  contemporary 
tombs  of  lesser  impor- 
tance, show  that  sculp- 
ture was  at  that  time  put 
almost  entirely  to  dec- 
orative purposes  and 
utilized  in  the  service 
of  industrial  and  not  of 
monumental  art,  and 
that,  furthermore,  the 
great  majority  of  the 
objects  found  were  im- 
ported, and  were  either 
of  Phoenician  manufact- 
ure or  brought  by  the 
Phoenicians  from  Egypt 

and  Western  Asia.  Extreme  luxury  was  indulged  in  by  the 
women,  who  wore  earrings,  bracelets,  and  necklaces  of  gold 
having  decorations  of  heads,  figures,  and  reliefs.  The  house 
furniture  appears  to  have  been  rich,  judging  from  the  tombs, 


FIG.    43. — AKTKMIS    FROM    I.AKK    HALTEKONA. 
HKIT1SH    MUSEUM. 


Il8  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

which  contained  silver  bowls,  bronze  tripods,  and  candelabra, 
jewelry  cases,  couches,  etc.  The  style  of  these  works  is  always 
Oriental,  even  when  one  discerns  the  hand  of  a  native  artist, 
and  it  bears  not  even  a  remote  resemblance  to  the  later  native 
Etruscan  art.  The  same  judgment  may  be  passed  upon  the  few 
remains  of  contemporary  monumental  sculpture.  The  earliest 
examples  appear  to  be  the  stone  female  figures,  about  life-size, 
lately  discovered  in  the  domical  chamber  of  la  Pietrera  at 
Vetulonia.  They  are  completely  nude,  and  are  represented 
either  rigidly  reclining  on  their  backs  on  funereal  couches,  or 
standing  upright,  the  pointed  base  on  which  they  stand  being 
fixed  in  the  ground.  The  proportions  are  good,  and  the  heads 
interesting  and  of  precisely  the  same  type  as  the  heads  on  the 
gold  jewelry  found  in  the  earliest  Vetulonian  tombs.  Almost 
contemporary  with  these  unique  female  figures  are*the  earliest 
of  the  stone  stelae  usually  marking  the  tombs  of  men,  especially 
warriors.  The  connection  with  Greece  as  well  as  with  the 
Orient  is  based  not  only  upon  the  traditions  of  Greek  emigra- 
tions, but  upon  the  continuous  relations  with  Greece  as  shown 
by  the  fact  that  Caere,  and  probably  also  Tarquinii,  had  treas- 
uries at  Delphi,  and  were  therefore  regarded  as  Greek  cities 
during  the  seventh  century.  Bronzes  of  the  sixth  century,  found 
at  Perugia  (Perusia)  and  Chiusi  (Clusium),  antedating  the  cap- 
ture of  these  cities  by  the  Etruscans,  are  of  purely  Ionian  Greek 
style.  These  objects,  therefore,  although  not  equalling  the 
Oriental  in  number  and  influence,  hold  a  distinct  place  in 
this  early  period. 

The  next  period  is  that  of  the — 

ARCHAIC  ETRUSCAN  style,  in  all  its  primitive  crudeness,  real- 
ism, and  love  of  the  horrible;  and  it  is  the  only  period  when 
Etruria  is  but  little  influenced  by  other  nations,  although  even 
now  we  perceive  traces  both  of  the  lingering  of  Oriental  and 
the  more  frequent  incoming  of  Greek  wares.  It  lasts  through 
the. fifth  century  and  the  early  part  of  the  fourth.  The  impor- 
tation of  Greek  Corinthian  and  black-figured  vases  had  a 


ITALIC   AND    ETRUSCAN    SCULPTURE.  1 19 

strong  influence  upon  the  style  of  Etruscan  sculpture,  especially 
upon  the  funeral  bas-reliefs  and  the  bronzes.  The  shapeless- 
ness  of  the  figures  betrays  the  copying  of  flat  models.  The 
sites  of  the  tombs  are  now  often  marked  by  sculptured  stelae 
and  figures  in  place  of  the  earlier  undecorated  cones.  In  the 
warrior  figures  on  the  stelae,  in  the  winged  lions  or  sphinxes  in 
stone  that  guard  the  entrances,  we  trace  Oriental  traditions. 
Some  early  reliefs  on  large  sarcophagi  seem  copied  from  the 
banquet  scenes  on  Greek  vases;  while  on  some  carved  stone 
cippi  there  are  mourning  scenes  in  low-relief  of  extreme  real- 
ism, which  give  the  truest  measure  of  early  Etruscan  sculpture, 
with  its  lack  of  artistic  sense  both  in  composition  and  design. 

This  lack  of  artistic  sense  is  also  well  illustrated  by  some 
early  cinerary  urns  of  stone  or  terracotta  in  the  form  of  hollow 
statues,  seated  or  standing,  with  removable  heads.  Among  the 
large  sculptured  sarcophagi  of  the  period  are  two  of  remark- 
able interest — one  in  the  Louvre  and  the  other  in  the  British 
Museum.  The  realism  of  the  strongly  marked  and  ugly  features 
is  enhanced  by  brilliant  coloring  and  by  an  elaboration  of  the 
most  minute  details  of  costume  and  ornament.  During  this 
period  we  no  longer  find  as  great  a  wealth  of  jewelry  and  other 
objects  in  metal  in  the  tombs :  these  are  partly  replaced  by 
the  less  expensive  earthenware  vases,  at  times  imported  from 
Greece,  especially  Attica,  at  times  of  home  manufacture.  The 
most  important  works  were,  without  doubt,  the  terracotta  sculp- 
tures with  which  the  gables  of  the  Etruscan  temples  were 
decorated.  Such  were  the  gables  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
Capitol inus  in  Rome,  executed  by  Etruscan  sculptors. 

THE  HELLENIC  PERIOD,  or  the  third  period,  lasts  during  a 
great  part  of  the  fourth  and  third  centuries.  Etruscan  art 
became  more  supple  and  varied  in  its  forms,  threw  off  some 
of  the  crude  qualities  of  its  realism,  and  not  only  attempted 
to  copy  closely  the  style  of  the  numerous  works  of  Greek  art 
imported  either  directly  or  from  the  cities  of  Southern  Italy, 
but  adapted  to  its  use  a  large  number  of  the  scenes  of  Greek 


I2O 


HISTORY    OF  SCULPTURE. 


mythology.  Terracotta,  which  had  hitherto  been  the  favorite 
material,  was  now  rivalled  by  bronze  and  marble.  With  the 
spread  of  the  practice  of  incineration,  the  small  marble  cin- 


FIG.    44. — ETRUSCAN   CINERARY    URN.      VOLTERRA. 

erary  urn,  with  reliefs  on  its  sides  and  reclining  figures  on  its 
cover,  were  manufactured  by  the  thousand.  The  bronze- 
workers  had  become  so  skilful  that  their  works  were  eagerly 
sought  for,  even  in  Attica.  There  was  a  revival  of  decorative 


ITALIC   AND   ETRUSCAN   SCULPTURE.  121 

art,  shown  especially  in  the  multitude  of  bronze  engraved  mir- 
rors, in  the  famous  ctstce,  or  jewel-cases,  in  arms  and  armor, 
and  in  statues.  The  Romans  found  two  thousand  bronze 
statues  in  Volsinii  alone  in  280  B.C.  Very  few  bronze  statues 
have  been  preserved  that  may  be  regarded  as  Etruscan.  The 
Wolf  of  the  Capitol,  the  Minerva,  and  the  Chimaera  seem  to 
be  Greek.  The  Mars  of  Todi,  the  Orator  of  Florence,  and 
the  Child  with  the  Bird  in  the  Vatican  seem  genuine  exam- 
ples of  Etruscan  work.  Terracotta  continued  to  be  in  use  for 
temple  sculptures.  Only  a  few  fragments  of  the  gable  statuary 
of  this  period  remain ;  for  example,  some  figures  from  a 
temple  at  Luni,  in  the  Florence  Museum,  others  from  an 
unknown  temple  in  the  Vatican  Museum,  and  from  the  temple 
of  Juno  at  Falerii,  in  the  Papa  Giulio  Museum  at  Rome.  The 
style  of  these  works  is  partly  or  entirely  Hellenic. 

There  came  a  time  when  Etruscan  sculpture,  after  having 
exercised  considerable  influence  in  Rome,  became  merged  in 
the  general  development  of  Italian  sculpture  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Greek  artists  established  in  Rome  during  the  last 
two  centuries  of  the  Republic. 

EXTANT  MONUMENTS.  Etruscan  sculpture  may  be  best  studied  in 
Italy  at  the  Museo  Civico  of  Bologna,  the  Museo  Archeologico  at  Flor- 
ence, the  local  museums  of  Volterra,  Perugia,  Corneto,  and  Chiusi,  and 
at  Rome  in  the  Vatican  and  Papa  Giulio  Museums.  The  British  Museum 
and  the  principal  Continental  museums  have  representative  examples  01 
Etruscan  urns,  terracottas,  bronzes,  sarcophagi,  and  jewelry. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

ROMAN   SCULPTURE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  Bernoulli,  Romische  Ikonographie. 
Brunn,  Denkmaler  griech.  u.  romischer  Skulptttr  ;  Griechische  it, 
rJmische  Portraits.  Courbaud,  Le  Bas-relief  Romain  a  Repr  - 
sfntations  Historiques.  Detlef sen,  De  Arte  Romanorum  Antiquis- 
sima.  Diitschke,  Antike  Bildwerke  in  Oberitalien.  Imhoof 
Blumer,  Portratkopfe  auf  rom.  Munzen.  Lanciani,  Ancient 
Rome.  Martha,  L1  ArchHologie  Etrusque  et  Romaine.  Matz  und 
von  Duhn,  Antike  Bildwerke  in  Rome.  Overbeck,  Geschichte 
der  griechischen  Plastik.  Perry,  Greek  and  Roman  Sculpture. 
Philippi,  Ueber  die  romischen  Triitmphalreliefs.  Robert,  Die 
antiken  Sarcophagreliefs.  Schreiber,  Atlas  of  Classical  Antiq- 
uities. 

HOME.  It  may  seem  at  first  singular  that  sculpture  should 
have  developed  so  late  in  Rome.  The  Etruscans  to  the  north, 
and  the  Greek  and  Graeco-Italic  cities  to  the  south,  practised 
it  in  profusion  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  of  Roman 
history,  while  Rome  appeared  to  remain  perfectly  aloof,  or 
satisfied  itself  with  occasional  terracotta  sculptures  from  the 
hand  of  Etruscan  sculptors — as  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
Capitolinus — or  dedicated  an  occasional  statue  in  imitation 
of  the  Greek  custom.  Even  in  the  fourth  and  third  centuries 
B.C.,  the  numerous  portrait-statues  and  busts  set  up  in  Rome, 
the  works  of  mediocre  Etrusco-Greek  sculptors,  appear  to  have 
been  valueless  for  the  history  of  art,  and  interesting  mainly  as 
showing  how  the  Roman  mind  sought  to  make  sculpture  of 
practical  service,  for  the  satisfaction  of  personal  vanity  or 
ambition. 

But  there  were  several  reasons  for  the  entire  lack  of  a  native- 
born,  national  Roman  art  of  sculpture.  As  a  people  the 


ROMAN   SCULPTURE.  12^ 

Romans  were  as  devoid  of  true  plastic  sense  as  the  Etruscans, 
and  as  a  people  they  also  held  the  practice  of  art  in  the  greatest 
contempt,  and  as  work  fit  only  for  slaves. 

PORTRAITURE.  The  very  fact  that  there  never  was  any  devel- 
opment of  plastic  art 
in  Rome  in  the  ser- 
vice of  religion  —  but 
only  in  the  service  of 
ancestral  worship  and 
self-glorification — car- 
ried with  it  as  a  con- 
sequence the  absence 
of  all  idealism  and  all  inspiration. 
The  thousands  of  portrait  statues 
that  encumbered  the  Forum  in  the 
third  and  second  century  B.C.  were 
probably  the  work  of  Etruscans. 
The  restriction  of  sculpture  to  so 
naturalistic  a  branch,  and  the  de- 
velopment of  an  extremely  realistic 
kind  of  portrait  sculpture,  were  en- 
couraged by  the  Roman  practice  of 
having  in  their  houses  the  effigies 
of  all  their  ancestors,  rendered  as 
faithfully  as  possible.  As  drapery 
was  quite  conventional,  the  resem- 
blance was  confined  to  the  heads,  and  this  led  to  the  sale  of 
ready-made  statues,  the  heads  of  which  were  separate  and 
executed  to  order.  The  funeral  procession  which  formed  so 
large  a  part  of  Roman  public  display  was  the  occasion  for 
bringing  forth  all  these,  ancestral  effigies.  Living  persons 
resembling  the  deceased  were  ma'de  to  take  part,  and  in  all 
cases  the  utmost  fidelity  of  detail  was  aimed  at,  as  in  the 
case  of  a  figure  representing  Caesar,  showing  his  gaping  wounds. 

Surpassing  in   numbers   the  class  of  works  just  mentioned 


124  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 

were  the  honorary  statues.  These  were  of  many  varieties  : 
military  statues  {loricatce),  and  civil  and  religious  (togatce) ; 
equestrian,  standing  and  seated ;  statues  to  women,  statues 
erected  by  decree,  by  subscription,  or  by  private  individuals  to 
themselves  or  members  of  their  family.  The  ultimate  devel- 
opment of  this  fashion  led  to  the  erection  in  all  important 
cities  of  statues  of  the  deified  emperors  and  their  families, 
often  in  special  temples.  Beginning  with  the  reign  of  Augus- 
tus, mythology  was  more  fully  represented  in  sculpture  by 
combining  Greek  and  Roman  myths,  by  copying  Greek  types 
of  all  periods,  and  by  affording  hospitality  to  many  varieties 
of  Oriental  myths — such  as  the  Persian  and  Egyptian.  The 
minor  native  deities,  the  genii,  the  lares  and  penates,  Silvanus 
and  the  rural  gods,  found  expression  as  soon  as  the  Roman 
mind  became  more  plastic  and  receptive. 

MATERIALS  AND  METHODS.  Terracotta  soon  went  out  of 
fashion,  and  bronze  remained  the  favorite  material  until  Greek 
influence  became  supreme.  Sculpture  in  the  round  was  almost 
exclusively  used  up  to  the  time  of  Augustus,  when  marble  began 
to  replace  bronze.  Sculpture  in  relief  received  a  consequent 
development  and  became,  if  we  except  portrait  busts,  the  most 
characteristic  form  of  Roman  sculpture.  In  pursuance  of  the 
true  Roman  policy  of  the  supremacy  of  utilitarian  motives,  the 
Romans  developed  all  forms  of  architecture  connected  with 
secular  and  popular  display,  ceremony,  use,  or  pleasure ;  and 
sculpture  was  used  almost  entirely,  not,  as  in  Greece,  in  con- 
nection with  the  temples  and  sacred  enclosures,  but  as  a  deco- 
ration for  forums,  peristyles,  theatres,  amphitheatres,  basilicas, 
baths,  circuses,  gateways,  bridges,  arches,  and  columns.  There 
were  as  many  as  three  thousand  bronze  statues  in  the  theatre 
erected  by  Scaurus  in  58  B.C.  Then  came  the  development 
of  those  unique  and  magnificent  forms  of  architecture  com- 
bined with  sculpture  which  are  exemplified  by  the  triumphal 
arches,  the  commemorative  columns,  and  the  Altar  of  Peace 
(Augustus).  The  desire  for  such  a  display  spread  to  private 


ROMAN   SCULPTURE. 


125 


individuals,  whose  houses  and  villas  were  filled  with  statuary 
of  every  quality. 

GREEK  INFLUENCE.  The  artistic  education  of  the  Romans 
really  began  during  the  course  of  their  conquests  of  the  Greek 
cities  of  Sicily,  Magna 
Graecia,  Asia  Minor,  and 
Greece  itself.  The  impres- 
sions produced  by  the  thou- 
sands of  examples  of  the 
greatest  productions  of 
Greek  scul  pture,  then 
brought  to  Rome,  was  fun- 
damental in  forming  Roman 
taste.  It  is  also  well  known 
how  many  Greek  sculptors 
established  themselves  at 
Rome  during  the  two  cen- 
turies before  and  after 
Augustus,  coming  from 
every  part  of  the  Hellenic 
world  to  the  one  city  whose 
wealth  afforded  an  oppor- 
tunity for  the  exercise  of 
their  talent.  And  yet,  how 
different  was  their  public 
position  from  the  honored 
one  enjoyed  by  their  prede- 
cessors of  the  free  Hellenic 
world.  In  Roman  estima- 
tion art  was  a  thing  to  be 
turned  out  by  the  yard,  and 
slaves  were  the  sort  of  men 
to  do  it.  It  cannot  be  said  that  the  Romans  lacked  the  oppor- 
tunity to  realize  the  beauties  of  sculpture.  There  was  a  continu- 
ous influx  of  masterpieces  of  all  periods,  from  the  time  of  the 


FIG.    46. — STATUE    OF  JUNO.       BATHS   OF    DIO- 
CLETIAN,   ROME. 


126  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 

capture  of  Syracuse  by  Marcellus  in  212  B.C.  until  the  reigns  of 
Nero  and  even  Hadrian,  when  there  was  collected  in  Rome  a 
majority  of  all  the  great  works  produced  by  five  centuries  of 
Greek  art  throughout  the  Hellenic  world  in  Europe  and  Asia. 
All  the  art  treasures  amassed  by  such  rulers  as  Philip,  Pyrrhos, 
and  Perseus,  all  the  monuments  of  Capua,  Tarentum,  Corinth, 
and  the  principal  Greek  sanctuaries  and  cities  of  the  main- 
land and  Asia  Minor,  were  collected  in  the  capital  of  the  Empire. 
And  yet  they  excited  at  most  an  intellectual  curiosity  and  enjoy- 
ment, but  did  not  stimulate  emulation.  After  the  supply  of 
originals  was  exhausted,  recourse  was  had  to  numerous  copies 
of  famous  works.  The  desire  to  collect  and  hoard  was  appar- 
ently insatiable  among  the  wealthy  Romans,  and  if  this  led  to 
carelessness  of  execution  and  true  artistic  value,  it  has  been  of 
use  to  science,  because  the  types  of  valuable  originals  irrepa- 
rably lost  have  thus  been  preserved  in  copies. 

HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT.  Although  Hellenic  influence 
can  be  traced  quite  early  in  Rome,  the  Etruscan  style  seems  to 
have  preponderated  until  the  close  of  the  third  century  B.C. 
After  that,  though  the  city  was  rapidly  filled  with  Greek  works, 
it  is  difficult  to  find  traces  of  a  school  of  Roman  sculpture 
until  just  before  the  time  of  Augustus.  During  the  emperor's 
reign  a  spirit  pervaded  sculpture  different  from  anything 
before  or  after,  and  approaching  more  closely  to  the  Gieek 
standpoint.  This  idealism  of  the  Augustan  sculptures  is 
well  exemplified  by  the  beautiful  reliefs  of  the  Ara  Pads 
Augusta,  the  famous  Altar  of  Peace  erected  in  12  B.C.  on  the 
return  of  Augustus  and  the  pacification  of  the  Empire.  The 
largest  of  the  two  series  of  reliefs  that  decorated  the  wall  sur- 
rounding the  altar  contained  two  sacrificial  processions  moving 
forward  with  slow  dignity  and  comprising  many  members  of 
the  imperial  family,  the  college  of  priests,  attendants,  and 
victims.  The  heads  of  the  imperial  personages  are  so  ideal- 
ized as  to  make  identification  almost  impossible  in  most  cases, 
quite  in  contrast  to  the  novel  realism  of  Roman  portraiture. 


ROMAN   SCULPTURE. 


127 


Although  eminently  graceful,  the  figures  lack  the  force  given  to 
later  sculptures  by  a  higher  relief,  greater  vigor  of  movement, 
and  an  individual  character.  Augustus  was  noted  for  his  love  of 
simplicity  in  art,  and  for  a  strong  predilection  for  the  archaic 
masters  of  Greek  sculp- 
t  u  r  e  .  He  not  o  n  1  y 
brought  to  Rome  many 
masterpieces  of  p  r  e  - 
Pheidian  sculpture,  such 
as  works  by  Bupalos, 
Endoios,  Hegias,  and 
Myron,  but  he  encour- 
aged the  imitation  of  the 
style  by  contemporary 
Greek  artists  of  the 
"  archaistic  "  school, 
such  as  Pasiteles  and 
Arkesilaos.  As  soon, 
however,  as  the  influence 
of  Augustus  was  removed, 
the  Roman  school  showed 
a  tendency  to  follow  the 
picturesque,  comic,  and 
grotesque  style  of  the 
genre  school  of  Alexan- 
dria, as  well  as  the  dra- 
mat  i  c  style  of  Asia 
Minor.  At  this  time  the 
respect  with  which  works 
of  Greek  art  had  usually 
been  treated  seems  to 
have  largely  disappeared.  Nero  and  Caligula  were  more  de- 
stroyers than  patrons  of  sculpture,  and  surpassed  in  their 
vandalism  the  earlier  exploits  of  Verres,  stigmatized  by  Cicero. 
The  development  of  relief  sculpture  on  sarcophagi,  which 


FIG.    47. — MARCIANA, 


3F   TRAJAN. 


128 


HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 


in  the  time  of  Augustus  was  rescued  from  the  mechanical  level 
of  the  Etruscans  and  raised  to  the  sphere  of  an  art,  continued 
on  a  grand  scale.  Many  of  the  sarcophagi  of  the  first  two 
centuries  of  the  Empire,  such  as  those  of  the  Licinii,  are 
superb  works.  Portraiture  also,  reached,  during  these  two  cen- 
turies, its  greatest  per- 
fection before  dying 
out  under  Caracalla. 
The  Greeks  never  did 
any  work  in  this  do- 
main as  great  as  was 
then  done  by  the  ar- 
tists of  Rome.  The 
artists  of  the  Ptole- 
mies alone,  had  fore- 
shadowed this  applica- 
tion of  psychological 
intuition  to  sculpture, 
and  the  Herculaneum 
bronzes  show,  as  mere 
art,  an  even  higher 
power  than  the  best 
Roman  work.  But 
Roman  portrai  ture 
was  a  whole  art- world 
in  itself. 

Roman  relief  sculpture  during  the  first  century  of  our  era 
developed  away  from  the  idealism  of  Augustus,  and  produced 
a  series  of  important  decorative  works  on  a  large  scale,  such 
as  the  arches  of  Titus  and  Trajan,  the  columns  cc  Trajan  and 
Marcus  Aurelius,  which  are  of  extreme  interest  to  the  student 
of  history.  The  finest  of  these  monumental  sculptures  are 
those  of  the  reign  of  Trajan,  especially  his  arch  at  Beneven- 
tum,  which  shows  a  distinct  advance  on  the  reliefs  of  Titus, 
themselves  more  life-like  and  effective  than  the  low  reliefs  of 


FIG.     48. — MARCUS     AURELIUS     SACRIFICING     BEFORE 
THE   TEMPLE   OF   JUPITER.      CAPITOL,    ROME. 


ROMAN   SCULPTURE. 


129 


Augustus.  The  pictorial  element  predominates,  the  figures 
are  in  different  planes;  there  is  more  movement,  animation, 
effectiveness.  The  figures  themselves  are  heavier,  the  draper- 
ies more  rich.  Almost  as  fine,  from  the  purely  artistic  stand- 
point, are  the  reliefs  of  the  column  of  Trajan,  which  possess  an 
equal  value  as  giving  a  picture  of  the  Roman  army  in  all  the 
vicissitudes  of  a  campaign— camping,  marching,  and  fighting. 
At  the  same  time,  pure  Greek  idealism  and  the  reproduction 
of  Greek  divine  types  of  the  best  period  are  a  feature  of  such 
works  as  Trajan's  Beneventum  arch.  Single  figures  among 
Trajan's  sculptures,  like  those  of  the  barbarian  prisoners,  show 
that  in  larger  works  Roman  sculpture  had  gained  rather  than 
lost  in  power  and  dramatic  intensity. 

Aside  from  a  cold  and  artificial  revival  in  the  time  of  Ha- 
drian, when,  by  the  choice  of  rich  materials  and  the  use  of  high 
finish,  the  artists  sought  to  make  up  for  their  loss  of  mastery, 
there  is  almost  an  uninterrupted  decadence,  at  first  slow,  under 
the  Antonines,  who  sought  to  arrest  the  decay,  but  becoming 
quite  rapid  in  the  third  century,  until,  in  the  time  of  Max- 
entius  and  Constantine,  there  were  no  sculptors  capable  even 
of  making  fair  copies.  During  this  century  there  was  a  return 
to  the  mechanical  multiplication  of  carved  sarcophagi,  as  in 
earlier  Etruscan  days. 

EXTANT  MONUMENTS.  Besides  the  important  standing  monu- 
ments in  Rome,  Beneventum  (arch),  the  Rhenish  province,  the  south  of 
France,  Roumania  (Adam-Klissi),  and  Africa,  works  of  Roman  sculpture 
are  present  in  large  numbers  in  almost  every  museum  :  in  Rome,  in  the 
Vatican,  Lateran,  Albani,  Torlonia,  Capitoline,  and  Baths  of  Diocletian 
Museums;  in  Naples,  in  the  Museo  Nazionale.  The  British  Museum, 
the  Louvre,  and  the  Berlin  Museum  are  especially  rich  among  the  collec- 
tions outside  of  Italy.  In  these  and  other  more  local  collections  we  can 
study  the  variations  of  Roman  art  that  arose  in  Gaul,  along  the  Rhine,  in 
Egypt,  in  Northern  Africa,  and  among  the  Phoenicians. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 
EARLY   CHRISTIAN    AND   BYZANTINE   SCULPTURE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  Bayet,  L1  Art  Byzantin ;  Re- 
cherches  pour  servir  &  r  Histoirc  de  la  Peinture  et  de  la  Sculpture 
Chre'tiennes  en  Orient.  Bullettino  di  Archeologia  Cristiana.  De 
Rossi,  Roma  Sotterranea.  Diehl,  Ravenne.  Ficker,  Die  alt- 
christliche  Bildwerke  im  christlichen  Museum  des  Laterans.  Gar- 
rucci,  Storia  deW  Arte  Cristiana  (2  volumes  on  sarcophagi, 
ivory  carvings,  etc.).  Grimoard  de  Saint  Laurent,  Guide  de 
r  Art  Chre'tien.  Kraus,  Real-Encyclopaedie  der  christlichen 
Alterthiimer ;  Geschichte  der  christlichen  Kunst.  Le  Blant,  Les 
Sarcophages  Chretiens  de  la  Gaule ;  Les  Sarcophages  Chretiens 
Antiques  de  la  Ville  d'  Aries.  Martigny,  Dictionnaire  des  An- 
tiquite's  Chre'tiennes.  Perate,  L1  Arche'ologie  Chre'tienne.  Revue 
de  r  Art  Chre'tien.  Romische  Quartalschrift  der  christlichen  Alter- 
thiimer. Schultze,  Archaeologie  der  christlichen  Kunst.  Smith 
and  Cheetham,  Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities.  Venturi, 
Storia  deir  Arte  Italiana. 

GENERAL  CHARACTEEISTICS.  The  most  characteristic  fact 
about  the  development  of  art  from  the  rise  of  Christianity  to 
the  Renaissance  in  the  fifteenth  century  was  the  supremacy  of 
architecture.  The  aesthetic  qualities  involved  in  love  of 
beauty,  orderly  symmetry,  and  artistic  form,  in  poetic  concep- 
tions and  exuberance  of  imagination,  all  have  their  outlet  in 
architecture.  In  painting,  not  external  beauty  but  internal 
significance,  was  required.  Sculpture,  on  the  other  hand,  was 
not  used  either  as  a  medium  for  teaching,  as  painting  was,  or, 
like  architecture,  as  an  aesthetic  vehicle.  It  therefore  played 
a  very  secondary  part,  and  not  until  the  close  of  the  twelfth 
century  did  it  begin  to  resume  its  old  part  as  an  important 
factor  in  the  development  of  art.  The  Gothic  cathedral  paved 
the  way  for  the  Renaissance. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   AND   BYZANTINE   SCULPTURE. 


The  vicissitudes  of  sculpture  during  the  fourteen  centuries 
before  the  Renaissance  may  be  described  under  three  heads : 

I.  EARLY  CHRISTIAN — third  to  sixth  centuries. 
II.  BYZANTINE — sixth  and  seventh  centuries. 
III.  MEDIAEVAL — eighth  to  fifteenth  centuries. 

Early  Christian  sculpture  began 
at  the  time  when  the  technique  of 
the  art  was  on  the  high  road  to 
decay.  The  first  two  centuries  of 
the  Christian  era  were  barren  of 
any  Christian  monuments.  In  the 
third  century  a  few  works  show 
that  technical  decadence  was  not 
yet  complete,  but,  this  being  the 
period  of  greatest  persecution,  no 
development  was  possible.  No 
workshops  for  the  free  treatment 
of  themes  of  Christian  sculpture 
could  be  established  when  it  was 
a  capital  offence  to  be  known  as  a 
Christian.  Many  examples  of 
carved  sarcophagi  found  in  the 
catacombs  of  Rome  show  that  the 
Christians  did  not  hesitate  to  order 
and  purchase,  for  their  more  illus- 
trious deceased,  sarcophagi 
carved  by  pagan  workmen  in  pagan 
workshops,  whenever  the  orna- 
mentation or  the  figures  did  not 
convey  a  pagan  religious  signifi- 
cance, or  when  such  subjects  had  been  adopted,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  group  of  Cupid  and  Psyche,  into  the  cycle  of 
Christian  subjects  and  were  thus  common  to  both.  Only 
with  the  reign  of  Constantine,  early  in  the  fourth  century, 


49. — THE  GOOD  SHEPHERD. 
LATEKAN,  HOME. 


132  HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 

did  sculpture  of  a  strictly  Christian  character  make  a  forward 
movement,  and  that  at  a  time  when  the  art  had  reached  the 
lowest  technical  decadence.  The  multiplication  of  works 
which  ensued  is,  therefore,  interesting  mainly  from  the  point 
of  view  of  iconography;  that  is,  the  development  of  Christian 
ideas  and  subjects  in  art.  Sculpture  at  this  time  brings  us 
face  to  face  with  the  ideas  of  early  Christians  about  death 
and  future  life,  and  shows  us  the  form  of  their  faith  as  sharply 
and  as  clearly  as  do  the  works  of  the  Church  Fathers.  And 
it  does  this  in  a  way  to  bring  us  closer,  perhaps,  to  the  inner 
heart  of  the  people.  The  early  Christians  followed  the  ex- 
ample of  the  Etruscans  and  Romans  in  covering  their  sar- 
cophagi with  subjects  that  had  no  special  connection  with  the 
particular  deceased,  but  were  related  to  conceptions  of  death 
and  the  future  life.  The  subjects  selected  were  often  taken 
from  the  primitive  liturgy  that  was  recited  at  the  bedside  of 
the  dying,  and,  as  in  the  words  of  the  litany  the  soul  about  to 
take  its  flight  calls  upon  Christ  to  deliver  it  from  eternal  death 
as  in  the  times  of  the  past  He  delivered  the  three  children 
from  the  fiery  furnace,  Daniel  from  the  lions,  and  brought  the 
Hebrews  across  the  Red  Sea,  so  sculptors  represented  these 
prayers  upon  the  sarcophagi  by  carving  the  very  scenes  from 
the  Old  Testament. 

Non-religious  sculpture  for  some  time  varied  but  little  in  its 
technique  and  themes  from  that  of  the  pagan  period.  Art 
continued  its  earlier  traditions,  and  the  Byzantine  emperors 
followed  in  the  footsteps  of  the  emperors  at  Rome.  Tri- 
umphal arches  and  columns  and  statues  were  decorated  and 
erected  in  a  style  that  shows  a  continuous  decadence.  Such 
were  the  arch  of  Constantine  at  Rome  and  the  columns  of 
Theodosius  and  Arcadius  at  Constantinople.  Numerous  statues 
of  emperors  and  empresses,  and  of  families  of  great  person- 
ages, continued  to  be  executed  with  diminishing  frequency  and 
skill.  Great  .use  was  made  for  decorative  purposes  of  earlier 
works.  Even  in  imperial  images  painting  gradually  superseded 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   AND   BYZANTINE   SCULPTURE.     133 


sculpture,  so  that,  finally,  in  the  seventh  or  eighth  century, 
sculpture  had  ceased  entirely  to  be  employed  for  these  pur- 
poses. During  this  period,  marble  came  to  be  used  less  and 
less  as  the  favorite  material,  while  metal  increased  its  vogue. 
The  last  of  the  fine  imperial  statues  appears  to  have  been  the 
great  equestrian  bronze  figure  of  Justinian,  which  he  erected 
after  his  victory  over  the  Persians  in  543.  After  his  reign, 
other  statues  were  erected  of  Justin  the  second,  Mauritius, 
Justinian  the  second,  Phokas,  Philippicus,  and,  even  at  the 
cl«se  of  the  Iconoclastic  period,  of  the  Empress  Irene  and 


FIG.    50. — EARLY   CHRISTIAN   SARCOPHAGUS.      LATERAN,    ROME. 

her  son.  All  these  have  perished,  and  Italy  appears  to  possess 
the  only  remaining  example  of  these  late  imperial  statues.  It 
is  a  standing  figure  of  bronze,  thought  to  represent  Heraclius, 
the  conqueror  of  the  Persians.  It  was  washed  ashore  on  the 
shipwrecked  vessel  that  was  probably  bearing  the  statue  from 
Constantinople  to  be  set  up  in  Rome  or  Ravenna. 

MATERIALS  AND  SOURCES.  Great  varieties  of  materials  were 
employed.  Marble  served  mainly  for  the  sepulchral  monu- 
ments and  for  the  carved  sarcophagi  in  the  catacombs,  and  in 
the  cemeteries  above  ground.  In  a  few  cases  marble  was  also 
used  for  statues,  as  in  the  statue  of  St.  Hippolytus,  and  a 
number  of  statuettes  of  the  Good  Shepherd.  Marble  reliefs 


134  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

were  also  used  to  decorate  the  church  pulpits,  as  in  the  am- 
bones  of  Ravenna  and  Salonica.  Internally,  stucco  work 
was  employed  very  successfully  to  decorate  walls  or  ceilings. 
Examples  of  this  rare  kind  of  work  are  in  the  vault  of  a 
chapel  in  the  catacomb  of  Calixtus  at  Rome,  dating  from  the 
third  century;  on  the  walls  of  the  baptistery  at  Ravenna,  and 
forming  the  dado  of  the  inner  walls  of  the  cathedral  at  Ra- 
venna, of  the  fifth  century.  However,  as  the  divorce  between 
architecture  and  sculpture  had  been  pronounced  at  the  very 
beginning  of  Christian  art,  it  is  natural  that  the  sculptors 
should  turn  themselves  more'  and  more  to  the  employment  of 
metals,  especially  gold,  silver,  and  bronze.  There  was  also 
some  religious  sentiment  that  led  to  the  preference  of  precious 
material  in  the  making  of  the  figures  that  formed  the  object 
of  religious  cult.  This  tendency,  which  became  more  pro- 
nounced in  the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  centuries,  is  the 
main  reason  for  the  destruction  of  the  majority  of  the  works 
of  this  period  and  for  our  consequent  imperfect  acquaintance 
with  its  sculptural  development.  The  decoration  was  usually 
centred  around  the  high  altar  and  the  confessional  beneath  it. 
Here  were  often  figures  or  reliefs  of  Christ  and  the  apostles, 
and  scenes  from  the  life  of  Christ  and  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. The  objects  used  in  the  services,  and  which  were  kept 
in  the  treasury  of  each  church,  although  belonging  to  the  cate- 
gory of  smaller  sculpture,  become  more  and  more  our  main 
reliance  for  tracing  the  history  of  the  art.  Such  are  the  pyxes, 
the  diptychs,  and  the  book  covers  of  carved  ivory,  the  patens, 
the  ampullas,  and  other  vases  of  gold  and  silver,  the  eucha- 
ristic  doves,  altar  fronts,  and  altar  canopies. 

SUBJECTS.  Symbolism  played  such  an  important  part  in  the 
art,  as  well  as  in  the  literature,  of  the  early  Christian  period 
that  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  it  permeates  sculpture  so 
thoroughly.  Inanimate  symbols  were  employed,  such  as  the 
vine,  the  Constantinian  monogram,  the  Alpha  and  Omega  as 
symbols  of  Christ,  the  palm  emblematic  of  martyrdom,  the 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN  AND    BYZANTINE   SCULPTURE.     135 

ship  of  the  church,  and  the  four  rivers  of  the  four  Gospels. 
Other  symbols  were  animate;  for  example,  the  dove  as  a  sym- 
bol of  the  soul,  the  sheep  or  lambs  representing  the  disciples, 
the  peacock  as  a  symbol  of  immortality.  Figured  composi- 
tions also  had  usually  a  symbolic  meaning.  Sometimes  they 
were  borrowed  directly  from  pagan. art,  even  in  detail.  Such 
was  the  case  with  Cupid  and  Psyche,  and  Orpheus.  Sometimes 
there  was  only  an  external  and  fortuitous  resemblance,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  similarity  of  the  Good  Shepherd  to  the  Hermes 


FIG.    51. — CHRISTIAN    SARCOPHAGUS    IN   S.    LORENZO    FUORI    LE    MURA. 

bearing  the  Ram.  Very  often  subjects  were  taken  from  the 
Old  Testament,  which  was  always  close  to  the  hearts  of  the 
early  Christians,  and  in  this  case  those  were  selected  that  were 
either  closely  connected  in  the  Christian  mind  with  providen- 
tial care  and  the  future  life,  or  were  types  that  could  be  used 
as  symbolic  or  allegorical  of  the  new  dispensation.  Examples 
of  the  first  category  are  those  illustrating  the  liturgy  for  the 
dying  already  referred  to,  such  as  Daniel  with  the  lions;  ex- 
amples of  the  second  are  Moses  striking  the  rock,  the  tempta- 
tion by  the  serpent,  and  the  translation  of  Elijah.  More 
popular  than  all,  however,  were  instances  of  miracles  in  the 


136  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 

life  of  Christ.  Finally,  there  were  scenes  from  daily  life, 
portraits,  and  decorative  designs  similar  to  those  of  pagan  art. 
The  latest  sarcophagi,  with  their  scenes  of  Christ  triumphant 
and  as  teacher,  are  intimately  connected  with  the  contemporary 
monumental  decoration  of  the  basilicas  of  the  fourth  century, 
especially  with  the  wall-mosaics. 

MONUMENTS  AND  HISTOBY.  The  sarcophagi,  which  form  the 
great  bulk  of  the  monuments  upon  which  these  scenes  were 
carved,  were  of  a  size  suited  to  contain  one  or  two  bodies,  and 
were  carved  usually  on  all  four  sides.  On  a  small  number  there 
was  a  single  continuous  relief  covering  the  entire  front,  espe- 
cially in  the  subject  of  the  Crossing  of  the  Red  Sea.  The  reliefs 
were  usually  arranged  in  one  or  two  stories,  each  consisting  of 
a  number  of  compositions.  Very  often  these  compositions 
were  separated  by  columns  bearing  an  architrave,  a  gable,  an 
arch,  or  a  shell-like  top,  but  even  more  often  the  subjects  were 
placed  side  by  side  without  any  separation.  At  times,  only 
a  few  separate  figures  were  carved,  in  the  centre  and  at  the 
angles,  the  rest  of  the  surface  being  strigillated.  The  covers 
of  the  sarcophagi  were  also  often  carved,  both  at  the  corners 
and  along  the  edges,  with  a  narrow  band  of  reliefs.  In  the 
centre  of  the  front  there  was  frequently  a  circle  or  a  shell, 
and  within  it  portrait  busts  of  the  deceased.  The  positions 
were  usually  quite  simple,  the  figures  were  few  and  arranged 
upon  a  single  plane.  They  were  carved  in  high-relief,  and 
have  little  or  no  background  or  decorative  setting.  In  this 
characteristic,  in  which  they  present  so  strong  a  contrast  with 
the  picturesque  compositions  of  Roman  historic  sculpture, 
they  show  a  return  to  Greek  simplicity.  The  most  interesting 
collections  of  sarcophagi  are  in  the  Lateran  Museum  at  Rome 
and  in  the  museum  at  Aries. 

The  most  noted  single  sarcophagus  is  that  of  the  prefect  of 
Rome,  Junius  Bassus.  This  sarcophagus,  which  dates  from  the 
year  359,  is  a  good  instance  of  the  more  elaborately  carved 
works,  and  an  enumeration  of  its  subjects  will  give  a  good  idea 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   AND   BYZANTINE   SCULPTURE.     137 

of  the  usual  grouping  of  subjects  in  early  Christian  sculpture. 
Beginning  from  the  left-hand  side  of  the  upper  zone  we  have  : 
(i)  The  Sacrifice  of  Isaac;  (2)  the  Denial  of  Peter;  (3)  Christ 
enthroned  teaching;  (4)  the  Arrest  of  Christ;  and  (5)  Pilate 
washing  his  Hands.  On  the  lower  zone  we  have:  (6)  Job  on 
the  Dung- hill ;  (7)  the  Temptation  of  Adam  and  Eve;  (8) 
Christ  entering  Jerusalem;  (9)  Daniel  between  the  Lions;  and 
(10)  the  Arrest  of  Peter.  It  is  very  seldom  that  an  entire  sar- 


JF   THE   CRUCIFIXION. 


cophagus  is  devoted  to  a  single  subject.  This  is  done  only 
in  such  cases  as  the  History  of  Jonah,  the  Crossing  of  the  Red 
Sea  by  the  Israelites,  and  the  subject  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles 
or  Christ  teaching.  Only  a  few  of  the  sarcophagi  carved  with 
figures  date  from  the  third  century;  the  great  majority  belong 
to  the  fourth  and  early  fifth  centuries. 

Rome  appears  to  have  been  the  centre  of  early  Christian 
sculpture  in  the  reigns  of  Constantine  and  his  successor  dur- 
ing the  fourth  century.  This  was  quite  natural,  for  the  greater 


138  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

part  of  the  important  works  of  art  executed  throughout  the 
empire  were  by  order  of  the  emperors.  The  political  centrali- 
zation which  was  the  keynote  of  Roman  polity  extended  to 
the  fine  arts,  which  were  practised  by  large  guilds  whose 
members  had  but  little  independence.  Hence  there  was  great 
uniformity  of  style.  The  south  of  France,  especially  the  city 
of  Aries,  appears  to  have  followed  very  closely  in  the  footsteps 
of  the  Roman  school,  with  some  interesting  variations,  and,  as 
a  source  of  information,  it  is  of  great  value  in  point  of  numbers 
and  interest.  When,  in  the  fifth  century,  the  imperial  capital 
was  transferred  to  Ravenna,  that  city  became  the  successor 
of  Rome  in  sculpture  as  well  as  in  other  branches  of  the  fine 
arts,  changing  the  Roman  style  for  one  with  stronger  Oriental 
elements.  This  school  flourished  until  the  close  of  the  early 
Christian  period ;  but,  coming  as  it  did  at  a  time  when  marble 
sculpture  was  declining  in  favor,  its  productions  were  less 
numerous  and  less  representative  of  the  art  of  the  age. 

There  are  a  number  of  monuments  of  sculpture  dating  from 
the  fifth  century  which  form  a  connecting  link  between  the 
early  Christian  and  Byzantine  styles.  Chief  among  these 
are  an  ivory  lipsanoteca  now  at  the  Museum  of  Brescia,  and 
the  carved  wooden  door  of  S.  Sabina  in  Rome.  These  two 
monuments  are  superior  to  the  bulk  of  earlier  sculpture, 
in  having  more  grace  and  more  perfect  technique,  a  greater 
refinement  of  type,  and  a  more  spiritual  conception  of  the 
subjects  of  Christian  art.  They  represent  the  first  wave  of 
Greek  influence  in  Italy.  The  gate  of  S.  Sabina  probably 
dates  from  the  time  of  Pope  Celestin  I.  (424).  It  originally 
included  twenty-eight  panels  in  relief — twelve  large  and  six- 
teen small  ones — arranged  in  rows  of  four.  In  this  work  the 
artist  sought  to  establish,  as  was  so  often  done  in  the  sculptures 
of  the  sarcophagi,  an  analogy  between  Old  and  New  Testament 
subjects.  Ten  panels  have  disappeared.  Among  those  that 
remain,  three  large  compositions  belong  to  the  Life  of  Moses, 
one  to  the  History  of  Daniel,  and  one  to  that  of  Elijah.  In 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  AND   BYZANTINE  SCULPTURE.     139 


the  series  from  the  New  Testament  the  most  important  are 
those  from  the  Passion  of  Christ,  for  they  are  among  the 
earliest  attempts  to  represent  this  part  of  the  life  of  Christ, 
which  was  repugnant  to 
the  early  artists.  In 
fact,  on  this  door  there 
is  probably  the  earliest 
known  representation  of 
the  Crucifixion.  In  the 
largest  of  these  compo- 
sitions we  find  a  wealth 
and  picturesqueness  of 
detail,  a  skill  in  the 
juxtaposition  of  epi- 
sodes, and  a  freedom  of 
handling  far  surpassing 
the  work  of  the  sarcoph- 
agi. The  last  and  most 
poetic  of  the  composi- 
tions represents  the 
youthful  Christ  between 
A  and  D,  in  a  laurel 
circle,  holding  an  open 
scroll  with  the  letters  of 
his  symbolic  name, 
IX&T2.  This  work 
stands  for  the  symbolism 
of  Byzantine  art  in  con- 
trast with  the  purely 
historical  tendencies  of 
the  P.oman  school.  It 
is  imaginative  and  dramatic.  At  the  same  time,  it  stands  half- 
way between  monumental  sculpture  and  the  smaller  works  in 
ivory  and  the  miniatures  which  form  the  bulk  of  the  remaining 
figured  monuments  of  succeeding  centuries. 


FIU.    53.— BRONZE    STATUE    OF     HERACLIUS. 
LETTA. 


140  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 

The  ivory  box  at  Brescia  is  earlier  than  the  door  of  S. 
Sabina,  and  although  it  contains  five  subjects  from  the  cycle  of 
the  Passion,  it  stops  short  of  the  last  painful  episodes  which 
appear  on  the  door.  Contemporary  with  the  developed  style 
of  the  sarcophagi,  it  has  a  poetry,  delicacy,  and  dramatic 
power  far  superior,  and  yet  it  shows  that  Italian  art  had  not 
yet  felt  the  influence  of  Constantinople.  This  is  but  one  of  a 
number  of  works  which  show  that  we  must  regard  the  majority 
of  carved  sarcophagi  as  the  work  of  artisans,  for  the  sculptors 
who  produced  the  great  majority  of  ivory  carvings  of  the  same 
period  have  a  style  that  is  far  more  correct,  more  artistic,  and 
representative  of  the  highest  development  of  the  period. 

BYZANTINE  SCULPTTIEE.  The  earliest  monuments  of  Byzan- 
tine sculpture  are  those  in  which  we  notice  that  the  Chris- 
tian art  of  the  East  had  begun  to  throw  off  some  of  its  Roman 
characteristics  and  to  show  itself  a  descendant  of  Greek  art. 
This  style  announces  itself  early  in  the  fifth  century  in  such 
works  as  the  ivory  reliefs  of  Galla  Placidia  and  Valentinian, 
and  it  ceases  with  the  reign  of  Justinian,  in  the  middle  of  the 
sixth  century,  which  marks  the  beginning  of  a  rapid  decay. 
The  works  of  this  period  in  the  Orient  show  a  decided  superior- 
ity over  contemporaneous  sculpture  in  the  West.  There  was 
greater  refinement,  elevation  of  type,  purity  of  form,  and  per- 
fection of  technique.  In  consequence  of  the  loss  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  works  then  produced,  largely  through  their 
destruction  by  the  Iconoclasts,  we  are  obliged  to  judge  of  their 
style  from  portable  works  of  sculpture  carried  by  commerce 
or  conquest  to  the  West  and  thus  preserved.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  are  the  carved  ivories  both  secular  and 
religious,  ecclesiastical  diptychs,  book-covers,  and  church 
vessels.  The  new  style  of  decorative  sculpture  which  arose  at 
this  time  and  spread  from  the  East  through  the  greater  part  of 
Italy  is  well  illustrated  in  the  capitals  and  carved  screens  at 
Ravenna,  Constantinople,  and  Venice. 

The  downfall  of  sculpture  was  facilitated  in  the  East  by  the 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   AND   BYZANTINE   SCULPTURE.     141 


persecution  of  the  Iconoclasts,  while  in  the  West  it  had  already 
fallen  into  decay  in  consequence  of  the  invasion  of  the  Bar- 
barians and  the  complete  break  in  artistic  tradition  which 
they  caused.  The  history  of  Byzantine  sculpture  is  almost  a 
blank  to  us  during  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  centuries. 
Shortly  before  the  year  900,  the  great  artistic  revival  under  the 
Macedonian  dynasty 
enabled  sculpture  to 
come  to  feeble  life 
once  more.  It  never 
was,  however,  a  favor- 
ite branch  of  art  in  the 
Christian  East.  The 
Oriental  love  of  color 
was  so  strong  that  it 
alone  was  selected  as  a 
medium  both  for  fig- 
ured and  ornamental 
decoration.  The 
Iconoclastic  move- 
ment,  although  de- 
feated, had  left  a  deep 
mark,  and  it  was  di- 
rected even  more 
against  sculpture  than 

against     painting,      be-  FIG.  54.— EPISCOPAL  CHAIR   OK   MAXIMIANUS. 

cause  sculpture  was  RAVENNA" 

more  closely  connected  with  pagan  worship,  and  could  more 
clearly  produce  the  illusion  of  life — the  bete  noire  oi  the  Icono- 
clasts. The  new  school  of  Byzantine  sculpture  may  be  studied 
in  works  extending  for  about  three  centuries,  ending  with  the 
capture  of  Constantinople  in  1204.  Its  remaining  works  are 
more  numerous  in  Italy  than  in  the  East  itself.  Venice, 
Sicily,  and  Southern  Italy  enable  us  to  follow  its  different 
phases  with  considerable  accuracy. 


142  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 

EXTANT  MONUMENTS.  The  finest  collection  of  sarcophagi  is  that  of 
the  Lateran  Museum,  Rome.  Next  in  importance  are  the  groups  of  sar- 
cophagi at  Aries  and  Ravenna.  Numbers  are  scattered  through  the  south 
of  France,  Rhenish  Germany,  Spain,  and  throughout  Italy.  Early  ivories 
of  importance  are  found  in  the  Louvre,  British  Museum,  Berlin  Museum, 
the  Vatican,  St.  Petersburg.  The  Museum  of  Constantinople  contains  a 
few  interesting  fragments  of  early  Byzantine  stone  sculpture,  and  some 
still  remain  in  the  churches  of  that  city.  The  reliefs  with  which  the 
exterior  of  S.  Marco,  Venice,  is  studded  are  the  best  examples  of  later 
Byzantine  sculpture.  The  ivory  carvings  are  scattered  in  many  museums. 
Of  especial  interest,  however,  are  the  collections  at  St.  Petersburg  and 
Florence. 


CHAPTER    XV. 
MEDIEVAL  SCULPTURE   IN    ITALY. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  Besides  the  general  histories,  con- 
sult :  Bode,  Beschreibung  der  Bildwerke  der  christiichen  Epoche 
im  Museum  zu  Berlin  ;  Die  italienische  Plastik.  Meyer,  Lom- 
bardische  Denkmdler.  Perkins,  Historical  Handbook  of  Italian 
Sculpture  ;  Italian  Sculpture  ;  Tuscan  Sculptors.  Schmarsow, 
£.  Martin  von  Lucca  und  die  Anfdnge  der  toskanischen  Skulptur 
im  Mittelalter.  Schultz,  Die  Kunst  des  Mittelalters  in  Unter- 
J talien. 

SCHOOLS    OF    NORTHERN,    CENTRAL,    AND    SOUTHERN   ITALY. 

During  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  sculpture  was  the 
least  important  of  the  fine  arts  in  Italy.  The  sterility  of 
four  centuries  of  figured  compositions  could  not  easily  be 
broken.  In  Italy  the  artistic  revival  centred  on  the  develop- 
ment of  architecture  far  more  than  in  other  European  coun- 
tries, for  public  structures  became  the  representatives  of  that 
intensely  local  pride  which  distinguished  the  free  Italian  cities. 
Hand  in  hand  with  the  development  of  municipal  institutions 
and  local  independence  went  the  erection  of  cathedrals  and 
town  halls.  Architecture  in  these  works  relied  less  for  decora- 
tion upon  the  aid  of  sculpture  than  upon  that  of  painting. 

At  the  same  time,  in  certain  parts  of  Italy,  especially  Lom- 
bardy  in  the  north  and  Apulia  in  the  south,  sculpture  was  used 
as  an  integral  part  of  architecture,  in  the  decoration  of  por- 
tals and  other  parts  of  the  fa9ade,  very  much  as  it  was  employed 
in  France  and  in  Germany.  But,  studying  Italy  from  one  end 
to  the  other,  we  find  sculpture  in  this  period  confined  usually 
to  independent  works,  especially  church  furniture  that  could 


144  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

be  executed  in  sculptors'  workshops,  and  not  in  connection 
with  the  erection  of  buildings.  Such  were  pulpits,  sepulchral 
monuments,  paschal  candle-sticks,  altar-fronts,  and  altar-taber- 
nacles. 

For  purposes  of  study,  Italy's  schools  of  sculpture  during 
this  period  may  be  regarded  as  corresponding  quite  closely  to 
her  general  political  divisions.  The  Ix^mbard  school  is  by  far 


FIG.    35,-^rilK    NATIVITY.      I'ANKI.    FROM    I'UI.I'IT   AT   PISA.      NICCOI.A    IT, Arid. 

the  most  important.  Although  extremely  rude  in  the  beginning, 
it  contains  a  germ  of  strength  and  character  that  appears  in 
full  force  in  the  school  of  Parma  toward  the  close  of  the  twelfth 
century.  The  earliest  in  date  arc  the  schools  of  Pavia  and 
Milan.  Somewhat  later  is  the  school  at  Verona,  established 
toward  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century,  and  possessed  of  less 
crudity  and  more  symmetry  and  delicacy.  Finally,  the  group 
of  cities  to  the  southeast  of  the  province — Parma,  Borgo  S. 
Donnino,  and  Modena — show  the  highest  excellence  of  any 
Italian  Romanesque  school.  In  them  sculpture  is  employed  with 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE   IN   ITALY.  145 

more  freedom  and  on  a  monumental  scale,  and  the  associa- 
tion with  architectural  forms  is  more  organic.  We  feel  here 
the  influence  of  France.  The  sculptures  on  the  facade  of  the 
Cathedral  of  Borgo  S.  Donnino  are  attributable  to  Benedetto 
Antelami.  Inside  and  outside  the  baptistery  at  Parma  are 
the  finest  works  before  Niccola  Pisano.  The  My/ant ine  influ- 
ence visible  in  Antelami 's  works  is  even  more  evident  in  the 
Pisan  school,  especially  in  the  reliefs  on  the  portals  of  the 
baptistery.  Venice  also  was  under  the  artistic  rule  of  Byzan- 
tium when  the  revival  of  sculpture  took  place.  S.  Marco  is 
decorated  with  numerous  sculptures  of  the  eleventh,  twelfth, 
and  thirteenth  centuries  which  are  almost  as  purely  By/antine 
in  style  as  the  mosaics  and  the  architecture  of  the  church.  In 
metal  work  this  influence  of  Byzantium  is  even  more  widely 
extended.  Throughout  a  large  part  of  the  south  of  Italy  are 
scattered  churches  with  inlaid  bronze  doors,  made  either  in 
Constantinople  by  Greek  artists  or  in  Italy  by  their  imitators, 
who  quickly  passed  to  work  in  relief,  as  in  the  case  of  Bari- 
sanus  of  Trani. 

In  Tuscany  hardly  any  sculpture  seems  to  have  been  executed 
during  the  eleventh  century,  but  in  the  twelfth  several  local 
schools  were  founded,  and  in  many  cases  the  artists'  names 
have  been  preserved.  Pisa  is  represented  by  Bonusamicus, 
Biduinus,  and  especially  Bonannus:  to  Lucca  belongs  Rober- 
tas; to  Pistoja,  Ridolphinus  and  Enrichus.  In  the  latter 
half  of  the  century  Gruamons  of  Pisa  threw  off  some  of  the 
early  rudeness  and  was  more  symmetrical  and  artistic.  Still, 
Tuscany  lagged  behind  the  rest  of  Italy  in  sculpture,  her  pro- 
ductions being  neither  as  monumental  as  the  Lombard  nor  as 
symmetrical  as  the  Venetian. 

In  the  south  of  Italy  the  provinces  that  were  strongly  impreg- 
nated with  Byzantine  influence  paid  but  slight  attention  to 
sculpture.  It  was  developed  almost  exclusively  in  the  province 
of  Apulia.  Sicily  and  the  Neapolitan  province  devoted  them- 
selves entirely  to  the  development  of  mosaic  decoration.  The 
10 


146  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 

style  of  Apulian  sculpture  was  so  strongly  Lombard  as  to  lead 
us- to  suppose  that  its  artists  belonged  either  to  local  Lombard 
guilds  or  were  artists  from  Lombardy  itself. 

Rome  was  perhaps  the  last  of  the  great  art  centres  to  revive 
sculpture,  but  the  revival,  early  in  the  thirteenth  century,  was 
of  considerable  importance,  because  it  was  directed,  more  than 
was  the  case  with  the  other  schools,  to  the  production  of  stat- 
uary instead  of  bas-reliefs. 

KEVIVAL  OF  SCTTLPTUBE  AT  PISA.  At  the  time  when  Italy  was 
feeling  in  its  .architecture  the  influence  of  the  new  Gothic  style, 
shortly  before  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  there  began 
a  revival  in  sculpture  which  brought  it  back  for  the  first  time 
into  the  rank  of  an  art  possessed  of  aesthetic  qualities.  It  is 
customary  to  give  the  entire  credit  of  this  revival  to  the  school 
'of  Pisa  and  Tuscany  founded  by  Niccola  Pisano  (1206  ?- 
1280  ?) ;  but  although  this  school  certainly  acquired  paramount 
influence  throughout  Italy,  yet  in  this  case,  as  in  other  vital 
movements,  the  revival  was  almost  simultaneous  in  different 
parts  of  the  peninsula.  This  was  especially  the  case  with  the 
southern  school  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.,  and 
in  Rome  at  the  same  time.  In  both  of  these  schools,  as  in  the 
Pisan  school,  we  find  a  decided  return  to  the  study  of  antique 
models.  The  southern  sculptures  at  Ravello  and  Capua  are 
distinctly  an  effort  at  an  imitation  of  Greek  types.  So  are 
the  coins  of  Frederick  II.  We  know  that  one  of  the  Roman 
sculptors  had  set  up  in  his  workshop  a  Roman  statue  of  ^Escu- 
lapius,  which  he  used  as  a  model,  and  at  whose  base  he  carved 
his  name.  Certainly,  the  Roman  school  was  the  centre  of  the 
revival  of  classic  forms  in  architecture  and  decoration  as  well 
as  in  sculpture,  and  this  movement  in  Rome  and  the  South 
may  almost  be  called  a  proto- Renaissance  movement. 

The  style  of  sculpture  in  Lombardy  and  in  Tuscany  in  the 
middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  when  Niccola  Pisano  founded 
his  school,  is  well  exemplified  by  the  pulpit  in  the  church  of 
San  Giovanni  at  Pistoja.  It  is  signed  by  a  Lombard,  Guido  da 


MEDIEVAL   SCULPTURE   IN   ITALY. 


Como,  and  dated  1250.  The  general  scheme  of  composition 
is  the  same  as  that  used  by  the  later  Pisan  school,  but  the 
figures  are  still  heavy  and  lifeless.  Niccola  Pisano  had 
already  begun  his  work  at  that  time.  His  early  style,  as  exem- 
plified in  the  Cathedral  «of 
Lucca,  culminated  in  his 
great  pulpit  in  the  baptistery 
at  Pisa  in  1260.  The  nov- 
elty of  his  genius  consisted 
in  the  invention  not  of  new 
subjects,  but  of  powerful  in- 
dividual types  of  humanity, 
and  he  was  thoroughly  suc- 
cessful only  in  his  heads  and 
in  some  of  his  nude  figures. 
For  while  his  drapery  was 
fine  in  i  t  s  e  1  f ,  his  draped 
figures  were  usually  far  too 
heavy.  His  art  was  purely 
humanistic, and  not  religious, 
and  as  the  time  had  not  yet 
come  for  divorcing  art  from 
religion  Niccola  failed  to 
impose  his  style  upon  the 
school.  In  fact,  the  Roman 
types  which  he  created  are 
found  in  their  original  form 
only  on  the  Pisan  pulpit.  In 
later  works,  like  the  pulpit 
at  Siena,  in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  his  school,  we 
find  a  return  to  a  more  relig- 
ious style.  Niccola  was 
succeeded  in  the  leadership 
of  the  school  by  his  son 


ANO  -run  FOUK 


NAL  VIRTUES  (BY   GIOVANNI 
CAMFOSANTO,  MSA. 


148  HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 

Giovanni  Pisano  (1250  7-1320?),  and  by  this  time  the  school 
had  acquired  supremacy  throughout  Tuscany.  As  soon  as  Gio- 
vanni was  released  from  his  father's  superintendence,  he  showed 
himself  to  be  animated  by  the  facile,  dramatic,  and  natural- 
istic element  of  the  Gothic  movement.  He  seems  to  have  felt 
the  influence  both  of  the  Rhenish  school  (Strassburg)  and  the 
school  of  northern  France  (Amiens).  His  work  was  hardly 
equal  to  the  best  productions"  of  either  of  these  schools.  In 
Giovanni's  earlier  work,  after  his  father's  death,  he  was  still 
dignified,  calm,  and  broad.  In  this  style  are  the  Virgin  and 
Child  of  the  Cathedral  of  Florence  and  the  tomb  of  Benedict 
XI.  at  Perugia.  He  became  possessed  more  and  more,  how- 
ever, by  over-dramatic  tendencies,  and  this  extravagant  manner 
of  his  is  admirably  illustrated  in  the  pulpit  at  Pistoja.  Gothic 
sculpture  in  both  France  and  Italy  is  essentially  allegorical 
and  symbolic,  wherever  it  does  not  attempt  purely  historical 
compositions.  Giovanni  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  intro- 
duce this  element  very  strikingly  into  Italian  sculpture,  and 
he  introduced  it  permanently.  His  greatest  successor,  Andrea 
Pisano  (1273  7-1319),  developed  and  perfected  this  element 
in  the  school,  and  was  a  master  of  broader  conceptions,  more 
perfect  technique,  and  more  creative  imagination  than  Gio- 
vanni. He  did  for  sculpture  in  this  respect  what  Giotto  did 
at  the  same  time  for  painting.  Under  his  leadership — between 
1310  and  1335 — the  Gothic  school  of  sculpture  reached  its 
highest  point  of  perfection  in  Italy.  Its  two  greatest  works 
in  Tuscany  are  the  four  piers  of  the  fa?ade  of  the  Cathedral  of 
Orvieto  and  the  series  of  reliefs  on  Giotto's  Campanile  in 
Florence,  both  of  which  are  important,  not  only  for  the 
beauty  of  their  execution  but  as  the  greatest  cycles  of  connected 
subjects  which  the  school  produced.  Andrea's  best  work,  and 
the  most  exquisite  single  production  of  the  school,  is  his  bronze 
door  for  the  baptistery  at  Florence,  which  served  as  a  model  to 
Ghiberti  for  his  first  door  nearly  a  hundred  years  afterwards. 
The  mantle  of  Andrea  Pisano  fell  upon  the  shoulders  of  Andrea 


MEDIEVAL  SCULPTURE   IN   ITALY. 


149 


Orcagna  (i329?-i368),  a  universal  genius — architect,  sculp- 
tor, and  painter — and  one  of  the  strongest  artists  that  Italy 
produced.  Unfortunately,  he  appears  to  have  devoted  only  a 
small  part  of  his  artistic  energy  to  sculpture.  His  masterpiece 
is  the  shrine  in  Or  San  Michele  at  Florence. 

THE  REVIVAL  ELSEWHERE.  In  the  mean  time  other  schools 
had  been  founded  outside  of  Pisa  and  Florence  under  the 
auspices  of  these  schools.  Agostino  di  Giovanni  and  Agnolo 


FIG.    57. — PORTION    OP    BAPTISTERY   GATE    (.BY    ANDREA    PISANO).       FLORENCE. 

di  Ventura  (1330)  were  leaders  at  Siena.  The  style  was  carried 
to  Milan  by  Giovanni  di  Balduccio  (1300-1347)  of  Pisa,  a 
pupil  of  Andrea,  who  established  the  Lombard  branch.  Tino 
di  Camaino  (1315-1336)  of  Siena  carried  it  to  Naples.  At 
the  same  time,  there  still  remained  some  local  schools  which 
were  more  or  less  outside  of  this  Pisan  and  Florentine  in- 
fluence. The  most  important  of  these  appears  to  have  been 
in  Lombardy,  with  its  centre  at  Verona.  This  school  extended 
during  the  fourteenth  century  to  many  cities  even  outside  of 


150  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

Lombardy,  especially  to  Padua  and  Venice.  Its  development 
can  best  be  studied,  in  Verona  itself,  in  the  monuments  of  the 
princes  of  the  Scaliger  family.  The  most  notable  family  of  ar- 
tists of  this  school  is  that  of  the  Campionesi.  It  showed  great 
originality  in  the  development  of  different  types  of  sepulchral 
monuments,  many  of  them  on  a  scale  of  great  magnificence.  The 
Campion!  family  worked  at  Bergamo,  Pavia,  Milan,  and  Monza. 
An  independent  branch  of  this  school  was  established  in  Venice, 
shortly  after  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  under  the 
leadership  of  the  Massegne  family  (Jacobello  and  Pietro  Polo). 

The  great  mass  of  works  produced  by  the  different  sections 
of  this  Lombard  school  is  composed  of  sepulchral  monuments 
with  reclining  figures  and  overhanging  canopies  placed  against 
church  walls.  They  hardly  vary  in  type  throughout  the  entire 
territory  permeated  by  this  style. 

THE  NEAPOLITAN  SCHOOL  produced  during  the  fourteenth 
century  a  great  number  of  sepulchral  monuments  of  a  different 
style,  but  very  few  of  them  rise  to  any  degree  of  merit,  notwith- 
standing their  ever-increasing  size,  elaboration,  and  multitude 
of  figures.  The  Roman  school  came  to  an  end  shortly  after 
1300,  in  consequence  of  the  removal  of  the  Papacy  to  Avignon 
and  the  consequent  decadence  of  the  city.  But  during  the  sixty 
or  seventy  years  before  this  time  it  had  taken  an  important  share 
in  the  early  revival.  The  artists  that  stand  out  with  especial 
prominence  are  two  of  the  same  name  and  family,  Vassalletto  I. 
and  II.  (fl.  1220-1276),  and  Giovanni  Cosmati  (fl.  1290-1304). 
This  Roman  school  created  the  type  of  sepulchral  monuments 
which  was  adopted  by  the  Pisan  artists.  The  best  early  ex- 
ample is  the  tomb  of  Pope  Hadrian  V.  at  Viterbo,  in  which 
we  see  that  combination  of  sculpture  with  architecture  and 
brilliant  mosaic  ornamentation  which  was  the  specialty  of  the 
Roman  school.  Giovanni  Cosmati  was  its  last  prominent  rep- 
resentative, and  he  consummated  the  interweaving  of  Gothic 
forms  into  the  earlier  Roman  style,  which  up  to  the  middle  of 
the  thirteenth  century  had  been  purely  classic. 


MEDIEVAL  SCULPTURE   IN   ITALY.  151 

MATERIALS.  Marble  and  stone  were  the  favorite  materials 
of  the  Italian  sculptor.  Italy  had  not  yet  regained  with  any 
degree  of  perfection  the  knowledge  of  metal -casting  which  had 
been  lost  during  the  dark  centuries  that  had  gone  before.  The 
earliest  works  in  metal  are  either  made  up  of  small  hammered 
plates  fastened  with  nails  to  a  background,  as  in  the  earliest 


FIG.  58.— THE  BETROTHAL  OF  THE  VIRGIN  (BY  ORCAGNA).   OR  SAN  MICHELE, 
FLORENCE. 

Greek  work,  or  consist  of  inlays  upon  metals  copied  from 
Byzantine  originals.  Reliefs  in  bronze  were  the  first  attempts 
at  casting.  The  chief  worker  in  bronze  at  the  close  of  the 
twelfth  century  was  Bonannus  of  Pisa,  but  Andrea  Pisano  (fl. 
I33°-I35°)  carried  the  work  of  relief-casting  to  great  per- 
fection. In  the  casting  of  figures  in  the  round,  success  was 


152  HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 

not  attained  until  the  Renaissance.  Nor  did  Italian  sculptors 
develop  sculpture  in  gold  and  silver  to  as  high  a  degree  of  per- 
fection as  did  the  artists  of  the  north  of  Europe.  Not  until 
the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  do  we  find  a  general 
production  of  works  in  enamelled  gold  and  silver  gilt ;  and  in 
this  work  the  Florentine  and  Sienese  schools  appear  to  have 
had  the  monopoly.  Ivory  was  used  especially  at  Venice,  but 
to  a  very  small  degree  as  compared  with  the  schools  of  northern 
Europe.  Stone  and  marble  were  used  not  only  as  in  the 
north  of  Europe,  when  the  sculpture  was  an  integral  part  of 
the  construction,  but  also  in  those  free  objects  of  church 
decoration  for  which  metal  was  the  favorite  material,  i.e., 
baptismal  fonts. 

SUBJECTS.  Until  the  advent  of  the  allegorical  school, 
shortly  before  1300,  Italian  sculpture  showed  itself  singularly 
unimaginative.  It  confined  itself  to  historical  and  legendary 
subjects  of  the  traditional,  time-honored,  scenes  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  and  to  the  legends  of  local  scenes.  This 
naturalistic  and  purely  psychological  character  of  Italian  sculp- 
ture is  quite  in  harmony  with  the  national  character  and  with 
the  subsequent  development  of  the  sister  art  of  painting. 
The  fourteenth  century,  with  its  predominant  mystical,  alle- 
gorical, and  often  pessimistic  tendency,  is  an  abnormal 
period  in  Italian  history.  In  its  sculpture  at  this  time  Italy 
was  more  in  touch  with  the  development  of  the  rest  of  Europe 
than  at  any  other  period,  and  parallels  to  the  greater  part  of 
the  allegorical  subjects  employed  in  her  schools  can  be  found 
plentifully  in  the  French  cathedrals.  It  is  probable  that  we 
have  here  one  of  the  centres  of  that  strong  philosophic, 
mystical,  and  literary  influence  exerted  by  the  French,  through 
the  University  of  Paris,  upon  the  principal  Italian  thinkers 
and  leaders  of  the  Gothic  period. 


CHAPTER   XVI. 
MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE   IN    FRANCE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  Adams,  Recueil  de  Sculptures  Go- 
thiques.  Baudot,  La  Sculpture  Frangaise  au  Moyen-age  et  a  la 
Renaissance.  Eme'ric-David,  Histoire  de  la  Sculpture  Fran^aise. 
Frothingham,  Jr.,  "  The  Revival  of  Sculpture  in  Europe  in  the 
Thirteenth  Century,"  in  Am.  Jour,  of  Arch.,  1885.  Gonse, 
L  Art  Gothique ;  La  Sculpture  Fran$aise.  Viollet-le-Duc, 
Dictionnaire  Raisonne"  de  I  Architecture  Franfdise.  Voge,  Die 
Anfdnge  des  monumentalen  Stiles  im  Mittelalter,  Eine  Unter- 
suchung  uber  die  erste  Blutezeit  franzosischer  Plastik. 

EARLY  FRENCH  SCULPTUEE.  In  the  Romanized  portion  of 
ancient  Gaul,  sculpture  had  followed  the  same  style  as  in 
Italy  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  But  the  period 
that  immediately  followed  the  decay  of  early  Christian  sculp- 
ture was  barren  of  works.  Apart  from  a  few  Gallic  versions  of 
late  Roman  style,  there  is  nothing  that  can  be  mentioned  in 
the  domain  of  monumental  sculpture  until  we  reach  the 
Romanesque  period  in  the  eleventh  century.  The  Carlovingian 
artistic  revival  was  confined  in  sculpture  to  the  industrial  arts ; 
and  especially  ivory-carving,  which  was  practised  with  great 
success  in  the  monasteries — the  centres  of  art  during  the  ninth 
century.  In  France,  as  in  Italy,  it  was  probably  the  lack  of 
Byzantine  models  in  sculpture  that  prevented  any  revival  cor- 
responding  to  that  which  took  place  in  architecture,  and 
especially  in  painting. 

EEVIVAL  OF  SCULPTUEE.  While  a  new  period  began  for 
architecture  in  France  at  the  very  threshold  of  the  eleventh 
century,  a  considerable  time  elapsed  before  a  similar  impulse 
was  given  to  sculpture.  It  was  not  until  the  close  of  the 


154 


HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 


eleventh  century   that   distinct   schools   of    figured    sculpture 
may  be  said  to  have  come  into  existence  in  different  parts  of 


FIG.    59.  — SCULPTURES   OF   PORTAL.      ST.    TROPHIME,    ARLES. 

France.     The  earliest  provinces  to  feel  the  revival  were  those 
of  the  south.      And  from  that  time  until   the  close  of  the 


MEDIEVAL   SCULPTURE   IN   FRANCE.  155 

Middle  Ages  a  regular  and  progressive  development  can  be 
traced.  Comparing  the  works  of  France  and  Italy  during  the 
Middle  Ages,  we  are  struck  by  several  fundamental  differences. 
In  Italy  sculpture  was,  as  a  rule,  confined  to  the  lintels  of 
the  church  portals  and  to  articles  of  church  furniture,  such  as 
pulpits,  baptismal  fonts,  sepulchral  monuments,  etc.  This 
precluded  the  development  of  great  systematic  cycles  of  sculp- 
tors, giving  an  inorganic  character  to  the  art,  as  well  as 
shutting  out  much  sculpture  in  the  round.  The  French  artist, 
on  the  other  hand,  had  always  a  strong  perception  of  the  rela- 
tion of  sculpture  to  architecture  and  of  their  cooperative 
value.  He  crowded  with  life-sized  or  colossal  statues  the 
recesses  of  the  church  porches  and  the  niches  of  the  fa9ade, 
while  he  filled  the  archivolts  and  tympana  of  the  doorways 
with  high-reliefs.  In  the  south  of  France  this  display  of 
sculpture  reached  the  extreme  of  exuberance.  At  Angouleme 
and  at  St.  Gilles  the  fa£ades  were  almost  entirely  covered. 
Even  in  cloisters,  statues  were  used  as  caryatides  and  were  set 
against  the  piers.  So  early  as  the  Rdmanesque  period  the 
French  schools  showed  a  clear-cut  individuality  with  deep  local 
distinctions,  and  they  were  able  to  give  more  individual  expres- 
sion to  their  figures  than  any  other  European  school.  The  art 
may  be  somewhat  hieratic,  the  figures  architecturally  still  or 
artificially  animated  according  to  the  schools,  but  there  appears 
in  the  heads  something  unknown  to  other  Romanesque  schools 
in  Europe — a  study  of  character  and  portraiture  that  is  more 
Latin  in  the  south,  more  French  and  Gallic  in  the  north  and 
centre.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  heads  of  the  stiff  figures 
in  the  portals  at  Chartres,  Corbeil,  I-e  Mans — works  of  the  mid- 
dle of  the  twelfth  century — are  more  true  to  the  types  among 
which  the  sculptor  lived  and  worked  than  the  heads  of  the  far 
more  advanced  and  artistically  perfect  statues  of  the  Gothic 
cathedrals  of  the  following  century.  For  Gothic  sculpture 
created  types  rather  than  reproduced  models. 

SCHOOLS  OF  THE  SOUTH.     The  earliest  of  the  French  schools 


156  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

of  the  south  are  those  of  Toulouse,  Limoges,  Provence,  and 
Burgundy.  There  is  but  little  Byzantine  influence  shown  in 
any  of  them.  At  opposite  poles  stand  Provence  and  Bur- 
gundy, the  former  being  influenced  by  the  numerous  Roman 
works  still  extant  in  the  cities,  while  the  latter  owed  nothing 
apparently  to  the  study  of  the  past.  The  sculpture  of  Pro- 
vence was  dignified  and  quiet.  The  rich  decorative  details  in 
which  it  surpassed  all  other  schools  were  welded  with  taste  into 
a  harmonious  unity  so  as  to  conceal  partly  the  defects  of  the 
individual  figures,  which,  especially  in  the  bas-reliefs,  were 
often  heavy  and  ill-proportioned.  In  Burgundy,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  technique  was  far  more  highly  finished,  and 
the  artists  endowed  with  a  more  vivid  fancy  and  invention. 
They  seemed  to  struggle  to  express  an  irrepressible  life  and 
energy,  and  as  a  result  often  produced  figures  awkward  and  dis- 
torted. They  were  gifted  also  with  a  keen  sense  of  the  gro- 
tesque and  the  horrible.  The  school  of  Toulouse  had  not  the 
repose,  naturalness,  and  harmony  of  the  Provencal,  nor  the  fancy 
or  energy  of  the  Burgurfdian  school.  It  united  high  finish  with 
artificially  studied  postures  and  drapery,  and  attempted  some- 
times dramatic  effects.  A  fifth  school  extends  from  Cahors 
to  Angouleme,  adjoining  the  province  of  Poitou  and  occupying 
part  of  Perigord.  This  school  was  in  certain  ways  an  advance 
upon  all  others  in  France  during  the  first  half  of  the  twelfth 
century.  Its  most  representative  works  are  in  the  portal  of  the 
Cathedral  of  Cahors  and  the  fagade  of  the  Cathedral  of  Angou- 
leme. In  these  works  the  double  influence  of  the  Carlo- 
virigian  school  and  of  Byzantine  style  is  extremely  striking. 
At  Angouleme  the  entire  facade  is 'covered  with  groups  and 
single  figures  in  high-relief,  belonging,  with  but  few  excep- 
tions, to  the  grand  scene  of  the  Last  Judgment,  which  was  the 
favorite  subject  of  Romanesque  sculpture  in  France.  The  fig- 
ure en  aureole  suggests  the  same  sculptor  as  that  of  Cahors. 
The  school  hardly  seems  able  to  achieve  the  coordination  of 
architecture  and  sculpture  so  well  as  the  more  southern 


MEDIAEVAL   SCULPTURE   IN   FRANCE. 


157 


schools.  The  sculpture  is  in  no  way  organic.  There  is  a 
tendency  to  violent  action  only  less  extravagant  than  that  in 
the  Burgundian  school ;  while  in  other  figures  there  is  a  nearer 
approach  to  beauty,  without  any  attempt  at  realism. 

SCHOOL  OF  THE  ILE-DE-FRANCE.  The  last  born  of  these 
schools,  that  of  the  Ile-de-France,  carried  out  from  the  begin- 
ning the  most  perfect  alliance  of  the  two  arts  of  architecture 
and  sculpture.  Many  of  the  figures  on  the  old  portals  of 


H<1.    60.  —  ROOF    SCULPTURES.      NOTRE    DAME,    PARIS. 

Chartres,  I^e  Mans,  Bourges,  St.  Denis,  St.  Loup,  etc.,  seem 
almost  integral  parts  of  the  architecture,  so  well  do  the  long 
and  immovable  figures,  with  their  narrow  parallel  folds  of 
drapery,  harmonize  with  the  general  lines.  The  great  advance 
made  by  this  school  is  in  the  use  of  statues  of  considerable 
size  in  the  lower  part  of  all  the  recesses  of  the  main  portals, 
transferring  to  this  part  the  centre  of  sculptural  interest.  It 
was  inevitable  that  by  this  subordination  sculpture  should  lose 
in  part  its  freedom  of  form  and  that  the  interest  of  the  details 


158  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

should  be  sacrificed  to  the  general  effect.  But  it  was  fortunate, 
for  the  sake  of  the  completeness  of  Gothic  art,  that  the  new 
style  of  architecture  arose  in  the  very  province  where  sculpture 
was  best  prepared  to  become  its  intelligent  handmaid  and 
fellow-laborer,  and  to  carry  out  in  plastic  form  the  encyclo- 
paedic conception  of  the  builders  of  the  great  cathedrals.  By 
a  gradual  change  during  the  second  half  of  the  twelfth  cen 
tury,  the  severe  stiffness  of  the  early  sculpture  of  the  Ile-de- 
France  was  lost,  a  greater  suppleness  and  freedom  of  action 
were  introduced ;  and  about  1210  to  1220  sculpture  had  become 
technically  able  in  this  school  to  express  the  great  variety  of 
artistic  subjects  that  were  given  to  it  to  execute  in  connection 
with  the  new  buildings  then  being  erected  over  the  whole  of 
northern  France. 

HISTORIC  DEVELOPMENT.  Among  the  earliest  examples  of 
the  new  Gothic  style  are  the  portal  of  the  Cathedral  of  Laon, 
and  the  western  portals  of  Notre  Dame  in  Paris,  finished  about 
1225.  The  next  half-century  saw  the  execution  of  a  great  mass 
l^of  statuary  and  reliefs  for  the  new  cathedrals,  and  one  stands 
amazed  at  the  unexampled  number  and  variety.  Each  cathe- 
dral had  several  thousand  figures,  as  instanced  in  such  structures 
as  Chartres,  Rheims,  Amiens,  and  Notre  Dame  in  Paris.  In 
these  works  the  irregular  and  unsystematic  selection  of  subjects, 
which  prevailed  during  the  Romanesque  period  had  given  place 
to  an  elaborate  system  and  classification  under  the  influence 
of  the  literary  leaders  of  the  scholastic  period.  In  the  study 
of  this  maze  of  sculptures  the  best  key  is  that  most  universal 
of  mediaeval  encyclopaedias,  the  Speculum  Universale,  written 
by  Vincent  of  Beauvais,  the  tutor  of  the  children  of  St.  Louis 
of  France.  The  aim  of  the  sculptors  was  to  represent  the 
creation,  character,  and  history  of  the  world,  religious,  sym- 
bolic, ethical,  and  historical,  in  a  series  of  epics  in  stone. 
As  in  Byzantine  painting,  so  in  Gothic  sculpture,  every  subject 
had  its  position  in  the  cathedral,  and  was  a  distinct  link  in  a 
long  chain  of  kindred  themes,  to  displace  which  would  be  to 


MEDIEVAL   SCULPTURE   IN   FRANCE.  159 

rob  them  of  the  greater  part  of  their  significance.  The  period 
of  activity  and  perfection  lasted  from  about  1225  to  the  close 
of  the  century.  It  is  not  easy  to  characterize  the  style,  on 
account  of  the  multitude  and  the  multiplicity  of  work,  and  the 
almost  complete  absence  of  artists'  names  around  which  to 
group  any  distinct  class  of  works.  There  is,  in  a  certain  sense, 
a  resemblance  to  the  developed  Greek  art  of  the  second  half 
of  the  fifth  century  B.C.  in  these  sculptures,  and  yet  there  is 
evidently  no  imitation  of  Greek  models.  It  is  also  evident 
that  both  the  human  body  and  drapery  were  closely  studied 
from  models ;  that,  in  fact,  the  Gothic  figure  was  usually  con- 
ceived by  the  sculptor  at  first  without  drapery.  At  the  same 
time,  it  seems  that,  while  a  few  artists  went  to  nature  and  to 
models,  they  nevertheless  sought  to  establish,  as  the  Greeks 
did,  canons  of  form.  These  canons  were  geometrical,  and 
were  so  elaborated  as  to  cover  every  usual  attitude  of  the 
human  body.  By  following  these  formulas  fixed  by  the  mas- 
ters, even  ordinary  artists  could  obtain  the  same  grace  and 
poise  of  figure.  An  illustration  of  this  fact  is  afforded  by  the 
drawings  in  the  sketch-book  of  one  of  these  artists — Villard  de 
Honnecourt.  It  was  in  the  study  of  drapery  that  the  greatest 
success  was  obtained,  a  success  almost  vying  with  that  of  the 
Greek  masters. 

The  sculpture  of  the  late  thirteenth  and  of  the  fourteenth 
century  loses  some  of  "the  dignity  and  repose  of  the  earlier 
work.  It  is  more  humorous  and  more  dramatic,  and  in  seek- 
ing after  effectiveness  it  often  falls  into  artificiality.  It  is  apt 
to  charm  by  its  quaint  brightness,  or  by  a  touch  of  satire,  and 
its  figures,  with  their  alluring  smile,  flexible  grace,  and  high 
finish,  evidently  aim  at  the  more  seductive  and  realistic  qual- 
ities of  art.  In  fact,  modern  writers  have  seen  in  this  later 
development  of  Gothic  sculpture  in  the  north  of  France  a 
renaissance  of  psychological  sculpture  which  anticipates  in 
many  ways  the  Italian  Renaissance  of  the  fifteenth  century.  At 
the  close  of  this  period  the  centre  of  artistic  action  shifts  from 


i6o 


HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 


the  province  of  Paris  northeastward  to  Flanders  and  Northern 
Burgundy. 

In  the  cathedrals  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  sculpture 
was  concentrated  upon  the  exterior,  and  centred  in  and  about 
the  portals.  The  main  portal  on  the  western  facade  consisted, 
as  a  rule,  of  three  great  pointed  arches.  The  side  portals  in 
the  north  and  south  transepts  were  sometimes  single,  some- 
times double;  and  besides  these  there  were  at  times  secondary 
doorways,  always  ornamented  with  sculpture.  At  first  the 


FIG.   6l. — SCULPTURED    FIGURES,    LEFT   PORTAL  OF  CATHEDRAL  AT   RHEIMS. 

.recesses  of  the  portals  were  opened  up  in  the  thickness  of  the 
facade  walls  (Notre  Dame,  Paris),  but  soon  they  were  made  to 
project  more  or  less,  as  at  Amiens  and  Rheims ;  sometimes 
they  projected  so  far  as  to  form  closed  porches,  as  at  Chartres. 
In  all  cases  large-sized  statues  were  placed  in  single  rows  in 
the  recesses,  their  heads  reaching  to  the  spring  of  the  arch. 
To  each  figure  there  corresponded  an  archivolt  above,  in  which 
the  place  of  the  primitive  moulding  was  taken  by  a  line  of 
figures  in  high-relief,  such  as  choirs  of  angels  and  series  of  the 


MEDIEVAL   SCULPTURE   IN   FRANCE.  l6l 

prophets  and  the  apostles ,  The  tympanum  which  they  encircled 
was  filled  with  a  large  composition,  and  below  it  one  of  smaller 
size  filled  the  lintel.  Beside  and  between  the  portals  there 
were  inserted  into  the  walls,  especially  so  far  as  to  form  a 
dado  around  the  base  line,  series  of  small  symbolic  composi- 
tions in  low-relief.  In  the  cathedrals  of  developed  style  a 
gable  usually  surmounted  each  arch  of  the  portals,  and  within 
each  one  was  a  composition  in  relief  or  in  the  round.  Above 
the  main  portal  on  the  western  front  was  usually  a  gallery 
filled  with  statues  of  the  kings  of  France.  Many  disjointed 
compositions  and  single  figures  were  scattered  over  other  parts 
of  the  exterior. 

VINCENT  OF  BEAUVAIS  divided  his  encyclopaedia,  or  Uni- 
versal Mirror,  into  four  sections — Nature,  Science,  Ethics,  and 
History.  The  order  of  his  encyclopaedia  is  best  followed  in 
the  Cathedral  of  Chartres,  and  here  we  have  a  good  illustration 
of  the  artistic  rendering  of  scholastic  ideas.  His  first  Mirror 
is  Nature,  illustrated  in  the  northern  porch  by  thirty-six  re- 
liefs and  seventy-five  statues,  beginning  with  the  creation  of 
the  heavens  and  the  earth,  and  closing  with  the  expulsion  of 
Adam  and  Eve  from  Paradise.  The  second  Mirror  shows  the 
first  step  in  the  redemption  of  man  in  the  natural  order  by 
labor.  It  is  developed  at  Chartres  in  a  series  of  one  hundred 
and  three  figures  on  the  north  porch.  Here  are  illustrated  the 
labors  of  the  country  in  their  different  seasons,  the  mechan- 
ical arts  of  the  towns,  and  the  liberal  or  intellectual  arts.  The 
third  Mirror  shows  how  man  takes  a  still  higher  step  in  his 
regeneration  in  the  spheres  of  morality  and  religion.  This 
moral  mirror  is  illustrated  by  one  hundred  and  forty  statues  at 
Chartres,  symbolizing  four  orders  of  virtues,  the  personal,  the 
domestic,  or  family,  virtues,  the  political  or  social,  and  the 
religious,  to  each  one  of  which  the  contrary  vice  is  opposed. 
Each  one  is  typified  by  a  figure  and  a  symbolical  composition. 
Finally,  the  fourth  Mirror  expresses  the  history  of  the  world 
from  the  first  scenes  in  the  Old  Testament  to  the  Last  Judg- 


1 62 


HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 


ment,  and  aims  at  typifying  the  most  important  incidents  in 
the  career  of  mankind.  It  is  natural  that  a  much  larger  num- 
ber of  compositions  and  statues  should  be  devoted  to  this  part 
of  the  subject  than  to  any  other.  The  whole  mirror,  even  in 
this  partial  reproduction  at  Chartres,  is  represented  by  nearly 
two  thousand  figures.  Treated  in  this  fashion,  sculpture  was 
made  to  represent,  almost  as  completely  as  literary  productions, 


FIG.    62. — SCULPTURES   OF   SOUTH    DOOR,    CATHEDRAL   AT   AMIENS. 

the  complex  thought  and  knowledge  of  the  period,   and  its 
study  could  not  but  be  of  extreme  value. 

MATERIALS  AND  TECHNIQUE.  Metal  work  never  attained  in 
Northern  France  to  the  popularity  that  it  had  in  Germany  and 
Flanders.  There  is  no  great  French  Gothic  school  of  gold 
and  silver  work,  like  the  Rhenish  school.  Monumental  cast- 
ing in  bronze  reached,  it  is  true,  perfection,  especially  in 
sepulchral  work  such  as  the  slab  of  Bishop  Evrard  de  Fouil- 


MEDIEVAL   SCULPTURE   IN   FRANCE.  163 

loy,  the  founder  of  the  Cathedral  of  Amiens.  The  Gothic 
artists  were  essentially  stone-cutters,  like  the  Greeks.  They 
conceived  their  works  in  connection  with  the  monument  for 
which  they  were  designed.  If  they  carved  them  in  their 
ateliers,  they  did  so  with  strict  regard  for  the  exact  position 
which  the  work  was  to  occupy  when  in  place,  and  modified 
the  proportions  of  the  figures  accordingly  to  suit  the  perspec- 
tive. But  often  the  reliefs  must  have  been  carved  on  the  spot. 
We  must  conceive  of  the  clergy  as  exercising  general  super- 
vision over  the  selection  and  arrangement  of  the  compositions, 
and  we  must  imagine  one  artist  having,  as  Pheidias  did  in  the 
Parthenon,  a  general  supervision  of  the  whole  work.  In  the 
thirteenth  century,  when  so  many  architects  were  sculptors, 
it  is  probable  that  in  many  cases  this  man  was  the  architect 
himself. 

There  is  little  to  say  of  technical  matters.  The  apprentice- 
ship in  this  was  served  during  the  Romanesque  period,  and  the 
Gothic  sculptor  had,  from  the  very  beginning,  the  same  mas- 
tery over  the  technical  part  of  his  art  as  the  Greeks  in  the  fifth 
century.  Like  the  Greeks  they  were  fond  of  polychromy, 
and  a  complete  recognition  of  the  pervasiveness  and  impor- 
tance of  this  characteristic  of  Gothic  sculpture  is  almost  as 
new  in  art  criticism  as  is  the  same  recognition  for  early  Greek 
sculpture.  The  restored  statues  inside  the  Ste.  Chapelle  in 
Paris,  and  a  few  statues  over  high  altars,  give  some  idea  of  the 
richness  and  strength  of  the  coloring  employed. 

EXTANT  MONUMENTS.  Mediaeval  French  sculpture  may  be  best 
studied  in  the  cathedrals  and  churches  throughout  France.  For  compara- 
tive purposes,  the  collection  of  casts  of  monumental  sculptures  at  the 
Trocadero  and  of  smaller  originals  at  the  Cluny  Museum,  Paris,  are 
invaluable. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 
MEDIAEVAL   SCULPTURE   IN   GERMANY. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  Besides  the  general  histories,  con- 
sult :  Bode,  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Plastik.  Forster,  Die 
deutsche  Kunst  in  Wort  und  Bild ;  Denkmdler  deutscher  Bau- 
kunst,  Bildnerei  und  Malerei.  Liibke,  Geschichte  der  deutschen 
Kunst.  Mithoff,  Kunstdenkmdkr  und  Alterthumer  im  Han- 
noverschen. 

EAELY  RHENISH  AND  SAXON  SCHOOLS.  The  development  of 
Christian  sculpture  in  Germany  began  only  during  the  Carlo- 
vingian  period,  and  it  was  even  then  confined  almost  exclusively 
to  carving  in  ivory.  In  these  works  we  see  the  imitation  both 
of  early  Christian  and  of  Byzantine  models.  The  principal 
centre  of  this  early  school  was  the  Monastery  of  St.  Gall,  which 
was  the  focus  of  both  art  and  learning  during  the  early  Carlo- 
vingian  period  (circa  800  to  900).  Among  the  artists  of  this 
monastery,  Tutilo  was  the  most  famous.  The  style  spread  from 
St.  Gall  to  the  monasteries  of  Germany,  such  as  Reichenau  and 
Hildesheim,  which  took  in  hand  the  task  of  spreading  culture 
in  Rhenish,  and  especially  Saxon,  Germany.  With  the  advent 
of  the  dynasty  of  the  Othos,  in  the  tenth  century,  there  was 
a  great  development  of  art  in  these  two  provinces,  resulting  in 
the  establishment  of  two  distinct  schools,  from  which  sprang 
all  those  which  afterwards  came  to  exist  throughout  Germany. 
Great  cathedrals  and  monastic  churches  were  erected,  surpass- 
ing in  size  all  contemporary  structures  in  the  rest  of  Europe ; 
and  yet  there  was  no  corresponding  development  of  monu- 
mental sculpture  at  the  beginning  of  this  period.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  ivory  carving,  which  continued  to  monopolize 


MEDI/EVAL   SCULPTURE   IN   GERMANY.  165 

the  best  efforts  of  the  sculptor,  developed  on  entirely  different 
lines  from  the  few  known  specimens  of  large  monuments. 


FIG.  63. — BOOK   COVER    ATTRIBUTED   TO   TUTILO.      MONASTERY   OF  ST.   GALL. 

The  Rhenish  and  Saxon  schools  of  the  tenth  century  revert 


166  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

directly  to  early  Christian  and  Byzantine  originals  without  the 
mediation  of  Carlovingian  influence.  It  is  easy  to  explain  the 
double  current.  On  the  one  hand,  the  assumption  of  imperial 
dignity,  the  expeditions  of  the  Othos  to  Italy,  the  consequent 
familiarity  with  the  remains  of  classic  and  early  Christian  art, 
made  a  deep  impression  upon  the  upper  clergy,  who  were  the 
directing  force  in  the  renovation  of  German  art.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  marriage  of  Otho  II.  to  the  imperial  Byzantine 
princess  Theophanu,  with  the  consequent  advent  of  Byzantine 
artists  and  works  of  art,  and  the  close  intercourse  with  Con- 
stantinople, exercised  a  strong  influence  on  the  formation  of 
more  than  one  branch  of  German  art,  notably  such  branches  of 
industrial  art  as  ivory  carving  and  small  work  in  gold,  silver, 
and  bronze,  as  well  as  enamel. 

Some  of  the  German  work  of  the  early  Saxon  school  is  so 
perfect  a  reproduction  of  early  Christian  or  Byzantine  work  as 
to  make  deception  possible.  There  is  the  same  choice  and 
arrangement  of  figures,  treatment  of  drapery,  and  style  of 
ornament.  Examples  of  this  are  the  reliquary  of  Emperor 
Henry  at  Quedlinburg,  with  its  similarity  to  an  early  Chris- 
tian sarcophagus;  the  book-cover  of  Otho  I.  at  Milan,  with 
its  portrait-like  figures  and  Byzantine  arrangement  of  the  com- 
position. As  original  characteristics  we  find  a  strong  natural- 
ism, an  energy  of  movement,  and  an  individuality  of  typv. 
that  foreshadow  later  Romanesque  sculpture.  In  works  like 
the  Crucifixion  at  Liverpool  (with  the  Maries  at  the  sepulchre 
below)  there  is  a  grace  and  delicacy  that  remind  one  of  the 
best  Byzantine  work  of  the  time  of  Theodoric  and  Justinian. 
Evidently,  there  was  an  idealistic  as  well  as  a  realistic  current. 
The  contemporary  Rhenish  school  was  not  only  far  less  produc- 
tive, but  its  works  are  lacking  in  true  plastic  sense.  In  this 
region  architecture  and  painting  were  the  favorite  arts,  and 
sculpture  never  gained  a  strong  foothold  until  the  time  of  the 
Gothic  cathedrals. 

BISE  OF  MONUMENTAL  SCtTLPTUBE.      Early  in   the   seventh 


MEDIEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN   GERMANY.  167 

century  we  can  trace  the  rise  in  Saxony  of  the  first  school  of 
monumental  sculpture  Strangely  enough,  the  material  in 
which  it  worked  was  not  stone,  but  bronze.  The  centre  of  this 
school  was  Hildesheim  and  its  founder  Bishop  Bern  ward, 
whose  journey  to  Italy  had  given  him  a  knowledge  of  works  of 
ancient  monumental  sculpture.  His  admiration-  for  the  col- 
umns of  Trajan  and  Marcus  Aurelius  led  to  his  imitation  of 
them  in  a  bronze  column  with  similar  spiral  bands  of  reliefs, 
erected  in  1022.  Already  he  had  completed  in  1015  bronze 
doors  for  his  cathedral.  The  thick  set  figures  of  the  column 
remind  us  of  the  reliquary  of  Henry  the  Fowler,  while  the 
animated  and  slender  figures  of  the  doors,  with  their  naive 
directness,  are  quite  unlike  any  contemporary  work,  but  show 
interesting  and  original  use  of  semi  classic  drapery,  and  in  the 
action  a  trace  of  the  influence  of  Carlovingian  ivories.  At 
the  same  time  that  these  and  other  works  of  monumental 
sculpture  were  being  executed  at  Hildesheim,  this  school 
developed  also  the  more  usual  forms  of  metal  work  applied  to 
smaller  articles  of  church  furniture,  such  as  book  covers,  can- 
dlesticks, sacred  vessels,  and  reliquaries.  In  general,  it  must 
be  confessed  that,  throughout  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centu- 
ries, German  artists — even  the  best  of  the  Saxon  school — 
showed  great  inferiority  in  their  monumental  work  as  coin- 
pared  with  objects  of  smaller  size  for  which  alone  good  models 
could  be  found  in  Byzantine  and  early  Christian  art.  The 
goldsmith  school  that  produced  small  works  in  gold,  silver, 
enamel,  and  bronze  had  its  centre  not  in  Saxony  but  on  the 
Rhine,  and  its  productions  have  never  been  surpassed  in  beauty 
and  richness.  Its  creation  was  due,  without  doubt,  to  the 
direct  influence  of  imported  Byzantine  models,  and  perhaps 
also  to  emigrant  Greek  artists. 

The  monumental  sculptor  labored,  therefore,  under  a  disad- 
vantage. He  did  not  at  first  become  emancipated  from  the 
influence  of  the  industrial  arts,  but  produced  articles  of  church 
furniture  in  metal  —such  as  doors,  altar-fronts,  and  baptismal 


1 68  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

fonts.  Such  are  the  doors  of  Augsburg,  Verona,  and  Gnesen, 
the  gold  altar-front  of  Basel,  the  altar  at  Goslar,  and  the  font 
at  Merseburg.  The  magnificent  gold  altar-front  given  to  the 
Cathedral  of  Basel  by  King  Henry  II.  is  not  only  a  good  exam- 


KIG.  64. — BRONZE   DOORS,  CATHEDRAL   OF   GNESEN.       (BODE,  "  GES.  D.  D.  PLASTIK,"  P.  31.) 

pie  of  an  art  leaning  towards  the  monumental,  but  is  one  of 
the  most  conclusive  proofs  of  Byzantine  influence  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  eleventh  century.  Bronze  was  soon  applied  to  a 
style  of  monument  destined  to  become  most  popular  in  the 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  GERMANY.  169 

late  Middle  Ages — the  sepulchral  slab.  One  of  the  earliest 
and  finest  works  of  this  kind  is  the  monument  of  King 
Rudolph  of  Swabia  (1080)  in  the  Cathedral  of  Merseburg.  In 
all  branches  of  metal  sculpture,  Germany  easily  excelled  the 
other  countries  of  Europe  during  the  entire  Romanesque  and 
early  Gothic  periods. 

Of  stone  sculpture  there  are  but  few  traces  during  the 
eleventh  century.  Even  capitals  carved  with  figures,  so  com- 
mon in  Italy  and  France,  are  rarely  found.  There  are,  how- 
ever, some  most  interesting  examples  of  sculpture  in  wood, 
especially  colossal  crucifixes  in  the  Munich  and  Nuremberg 
museums,  and  some  figures  at  St.  Emmeran,  Regensburg.  The 
southern  school  of  Bavaria  worked  side  by  side  with  the  Saxon 
school  in  all  kinds  of  subjects,  and  produced  quite  as  remark- 
able works.  On  the  whole,  as  we  review  the  development  of 
German  sculpture  during  the  eleventh  century,  we  get  an  im- 
pression of  disappointment.  The  sense  of  a  free  and  creative 
art  given  at  the  beginning  was  not  followed  up  by  a  logical 
development.  There  was  a  relapse — on  the  one  hand  to  bar- 
barism, and  on  the  other  hand  to  a  mere  imitation  of  Byzantine 
models  and  a  reversion  to  the  smaller  branches  of  the  art. 

TWELFTH-CENTURY  SCHOOLS.  As  the  twelfth  century  opened 
a  change  came.  Metal  sculpture  applied  to  monumental  work 
had  had  its  day,  and  failed.  Stone  sculpture  began  to  be  used 
in  connection  with  architecture.  Italy  and  France  had  both 
slightly  preceded  Germany  in  this  happy  innovation,  which 
was  to  work  so  complete  a  revolution  in  the  history  of  sculp- 
ture. Shortly  after  the  beginning  of  the  century,  German 
artists  conceived  a  way  of  connecting  the  two  arts  that  appears 
to  have  been  original  with  them  and  productive  of  excellent 
results.  This  was  the  use  of  iconic  statuary  in  the  interiors 
of  cathedrals,  especially  in  the  choirs.  These  statues  were 
adossed  to  the  piers  or  columns — sometimes  even  against  the 
walls — and  represented  empresses  and  other  princely  founders 
or  benefactors  of  the  church.  Later  we  find  allegorical  per- 


170  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

sonages,  such  as  sibyls,  joined  to  these  purely  historic  figures. 
By  the  side  of  the  three  schools  already  referred  to — the 
Saxon,  the  Rhenish,  and  the  Bavarian — there  arose  a  fourth 
school  in  Westphalia,  which  bore  some  relation  to  that  part  of 
the  Saxon  school  which  had  its  centre  in  the  cities  of  the  Harz 
Mountains.  Its  finest  work  is  the  famous  colossal  rock-relief 
on  the  Externstein  near  Horn,  representing  the  Descent  from 
the  Cross,  in  which  a  weird  symbolism  is  combined  with  con- 
siderable capacity  for  the  expression  of  emotion.  When  the 
school  attempted  figures  on  a  smaller  scale  the  result  was  usu- 
ally crude.  During  this  century  the  Rhenish  school  produced 
little  of  monumental  sculpture,  while  revelling  in  the  smaller 
branches  of  the  art — especially  in  goldsmith  work.  In  the 
southern  or  Bavarian  school  there  was  a  marked  decadence, 
with  increased  crudity  of  style  and  barbarous  weirdness  of  con- 
ception. Such  works  as  the  portal  of  the  Schottenkirche  at 
Regensburg  or  the  pier  in  the  crypt  of  Freising  show  to  what 
length  this  extravagance  could  be  carried.  The  secondary 
schools  of  Franconia  and  Alsace  show  sjmilar  tendencies.  The 
only  noble  works  of  the  period  belong  to  the  Saxon  school  and 
its  neighbors  in  the  Netherlands.  The  fine  traditions  of  bronze 
casting  are  continued  in  the  tomb  slabs,  such  as  that  of  Arch- 
bishop Frederick  at  Magdeburg,  and  a  number  at  Quedlinburg. 
The  summit  of  perfection  was  reached  in  the  famous  bronze 
baptismal  font  executed  in  1112  by  Lambert  Patras,  of  Dinant, 
for  St.  Bartholomew  at  Liege.  The  nobility  and  classic  sim- 
plicity of  its  figures  anticipated  the  best  qualities  of  the  sculp- 
ture of  the  following  century. 

THE  THIRTEENTH  CENTURY.  This  is  the  golden  age  of  Ger- 
man sculpture.  Never  before  did  it  reach  such  artistic  perfec- 
tion or  such  power.  The  more  material  and  unaesthetic  side 
of  the  naturalism  that  was  inherent  in  the  German  plastic  sense 
was  kept  in  abeyance  by  a  calm  dignity  and  an  idealism  that 
were  soon  to  vanish  and  by  a  breadth  of  execution  and  of  con- 
ception that  were  soon  to  give  way  to  the  preciosity,  the  love 


MEDIEVAL   SCULPTURE   IN   GERMANY. 


171 


of  exact  detail,  of  overloaded  decoration,  and  of  strange  and 
exaggerated  expressions  that  characterized  late  Gothic  and 
Renaissance  sculpture  in  Germany. 

This  development  is  contemporary  with  the  corresponding 
efflorescence  of  sculpture  in 
France  in  the  service  of  Gothic 
architecture.  France  had  started 
the  revolution  early  in  the  twelfth 
century,  and  in  the  second  decade 
of  the  thirteenth  had  perfected  it. 
Germany  was  undoubtedly  influ- 
enced more  quickly  by  the  Gothic 
sculpture  of  France  than  by  her 
architecture.  Hence  a  radical 
difference  between  the  two  coun- 
tries up  to  the  close  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  for  German  sculp- 
ture was  until  then  combined  not 
with  Gothic  but  with  pure  Ro- 
manesque or  pointed  architecture. 
Hence  we  do  not  find  in  Germany 
great  cycles  of  reliefs  filling 
archivolts,  tympana,  and  galler- 
ies, ornamenting  gables  and  pin- 
nacles, extending,  in  fact,  over 
the  whole  surface  of  the  walls. 
The  monuments  are  fewer  and 
more  sober,  less  decorative  and 
less  individual.  There  is  no 
attempt  to  represent  in  stone  the 
universe  in  all  its  aspects  and 
its  history.  In  the  interiors  are 

placed  statues  of  the  founders  or  benefactors  of  the  church, 
between  the  arches  figures  of  angels,  against  the  walls  of  the 
choir  the  apostles.  At  the  altar  is  a  group  of  the  Crucifixion 


— STATUE    OK   SIBYL.       CATHE- 
OK    BAMBEKG.     (BODE,    P.  66.) 


172  HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 

with  the  Virgin  and  St.  John;  and  on  the  pulpit,  reliefs  from 
the  Old  and  New  Testament.  On  the  exterior  the  tympana 
of  the  portals  sometimes  have  reliefs  representing  such  sub- 
jects as  the  Adoration  of  the  Kings  and  the  Last  Judgment, 
while  against  the  jambs  are  figures  of  the  prophets  and  evan- 
gelists, of  the  Wise  and  Foolish  Virgins,  of  Adam  and  Eve, 
etc.  As  the  century  progressed,  the  cycle  of  subjects  was 
enlarged  under  French  influence.  This  century  is  character- 
ized by  the  almost  complete  abandonment  of  metal,  and  a 
resort  to  the  use  of  stone  and,  at  times,  of  stucco. 

LATER  SAXON  SCHOOL.  The  Saxon  school  again  took  the 
lead,  but  the  centre  was  in  the  south  of  the  province,  and  with 
it  was  closely  connected  the  Franconian  school.  In  North 
Saxony  (Harz)  the  style  was  softer  and  more  graceful,  and  had 
more  elements  both  of  classic  and  Byzantine  tradition.  The 
more  southern,  and  especially  the  Franconian,  school  showed 
greater  strength  and  individuality.  The  reliefs  of  prophets 
and  apostles  in  the  choir  of  Bamberg  are  of  intense  interest 
for  their  rare  combination  of  naturalism  and  tradition.  The 
heads  are  not  merely  portrait-like,  as  in  the  case  of  some  of 
the  French  sculptures  in  the  Ile-de-France,  but  are  full  of  a 
life  and  an  energy  foreign  to  the  French  works,  and  which  were 
to  give  way  even  in  these  German  schools  to  a  calmer  and 
higher  ideal.  Returning  to  the  North  Saxon  school,  we  find 
that  Hildesheim,  which  led  in  the  earlier  period,  still  remained 
an  important  centre.  There  are  great  distinction  and  delicacy 
in  the  apostles  and  angels  in  stucco  of  the  choir  of  St.  Michael, 
which  dates  from  the  very  beginning  of  this  period.  The  same 
school  is  found  at  Hecklingen  and  Hamersleben,  but  its  purest 
and  finest  development  is  seen  in  the  simple  and  classic  figures 
of  apostles  in  the  choir  of  the  church  of  Halberstadt,  where 
the  awkwardness  of  the  earlier  Hildesheim  reliefs  has  been 
replaced  by  grace  and  harmony  of  life. 

The  style  of  South  Saxony,  with  its  heavier  and  more  impas- 
sive figures,  that  remind  us  sometimes  of  Niccola  Pisano's 


MEDIEVAL   SCULPTURE  IN   GERMANY.  173 

Pisan  pulpit,  is  exemplified  by  the  pulpit  and  Crucifixion 
group  at  Wechselberg  and  the  famous  Golden  Gate  at  the 
Cathedral  of  Freiberg — both  works  of  the  middle  of  the  thir- 
teenth century — showing  the  influence  of  France.  The  same 
school  produced  at  the  same  time  that  noblest  of  early  German 
sepulchral  monuments,  the  tomb  of  Henry  the  Lion  and  his 
wife  Mathilda,  in  the  Cathedral  of  Brunswick.  A  quite  differ- 
ent spirit  is  shown  in  the  few  monuments  of  the  Westphalian 
school,  which  fell  into  exaggeration  of  sentiment  and  atti- 
tude in  its  masterpiece — the  Cathedral  of  Magdeburg. 

The  culmination  of  German  sculpture  is  reached  in  the 
groups  of  statues  in  the  Cathedrals  of  Naumburg  and  Bam- 
berg,  executed  between  1250  and  1300.  The  princely  men  and 
women,  benefactors  of  the  churches,  whose  portrait  statues 
stand  against  the  piers  are  the  ideals  sung  by  the  Minnesingers. 
There  is  more  realism  in  some  of  the  Naumburg  statues,  and 
greater  simplicity.  In  both,  the  handling  of  the  rich,  heavy 
drapery  is  superb  and  very  original ;  for  instance,  in  the  statue 
of  the  man  who  has  thrown  his  long  robe  over  his  right  shoul- 
der, hiding  his  left  arm  in  its  folds.  The  most  remarkable 
among  the  Bamberg  statues  is  perhaps  the  ancient  Sibyl. 

LATER  RHENISH  SCHOOL.  At  the  close  of  this  period  a  new 
centre  of  activity  sprang  up  in  the  Rhenish  province,  and  showed 
itself  in  the  earliest  sculptures  of  the  Cathedrals  of  Strassburg 
and  Freiburg.  When  Gothic  architecture  finally  established 
its  sway  in  Germany,  at  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
sculpture  had  already  passed  its  period  of  highest  perfection. 
The  earliest  monuments,  it  is  true,  came  at  the  best  time  (circa 
1250),  as,  for  example,  the  sculptures  of  the  Church  of  the 
Virgin  at  Trier,  of  VVimpfen  im  Thai,  of  Freiburg  im  Breisgau, 
and  of  the  Cathedral  of  Strassburg.  While  acknowledging 
the  supremacy  of  the  new  French  Gothic  in  their  architecture, 
the  artists  of  these  churches  at  the  same  time  modified  their 
sculpture  under  the  same  influence.  The  Rhenish  school, 
especially,  copied  the  lightness  and  grace  of  the  French  work, 


174 


HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 


and  substituted  individual  types  for  the  strong  realistic  figures 
of  the  Saxon  school.  A  further  and  later  development  of  the 
same  style  appears  in  the  numerous  sculptures  of  the  Cologne 

Cathedral.  In  these  works  we 
find  the  same  multiplication  of 
minute  figures  in  archivolts  and 
reliefs  as  in  France,  but  the  ex- 
aggeration of  this  style  is  reached 
during  the  fourteenth  century  by 
the  school  of  Nuremberg,  which 
is  far  more  characteristically  Ger- 
man. Here  there  are  usually  no 
large  portal  statues  to  give 
strength  and  breadth  to  the  com- 
position. There  is  a  great  ex- 
panse of  reliefs,  with  many  small 
figures  which  seem  but  the  enlarge- 
ment of  ivory  carvings.  This 
style  of  the  Nuremberg  school 
exercised  a  wide  influence.  Some 
parts  of  Germany  retained  the 
massive  style  which  was  but  a 
development  of  the  old  Saxon 
school.  A  good  example  of  this 
is  the  decorations  of  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Magdeburg. 

EISE  OF  NATURALISM.  As  the 
time  of  the  Renaissance  ap- 
proached, naturalism  again  be- 
came the  predominant  character- 
istic of  German  sculpture,  and 
its  temporary  union  with  architecture  was  severed  forever. 
Except  in  the  Rhenish  province,  it  had  never  been  a  success. 
The  invasion  of  realism  led  to  the  increased  use  of  color  in 
connection  with  sculpture,  and  to  the  adoption  of  wood  as  the 


FIG.  66. — FIGURE  FROM  THE  LEFT 
PORTAL  OF  THE  CATHEDRAL  OF 
STRASSBURG. 


MEDLEVAL   SCULPTURE   IN   GERMANY.  175 

favorite  material.  The  masterpieces  of  the  new  school  are 
altar-pieces,  often  of  most  elaborate  composition,  with  a  ten- 
dency to  exaggerated  dramatic  effects  in  the  expression  and 
attitudes,  to  overloaded  details  in  the  backgrounds  and  the 
accessories,  to  a  loss  of  purity  of  outline  in  mass  and  detail. 
Individual  artists  now  came  to  the  front  and  established  schools. 
The  change  from  the  Gothic  to  the  naturalistic  style  took  place 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

EXTANT  MONUMENTS.  The  best  examples  of  the  ivory  sculptures  of 
the  Carlovingian  period  can  be  studied  in  the  following  museums  :  Louvre, 
Cluny,  and  Bibliotheque  Nationale  in  Paris  ;  British  Museum  and  South 
Kensington,  London  ;  and  in  the  Berlin  Museum.  Monumental  sculp- 
ture is  to  be  studied  in  the  churches.  Besides  the  churches,  however, 
there  are  a  few  museums  of  great  value  for  monumental  sculpture, 
especially  the  national  museums  of  Munich  and  Nuremberg. 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 
RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE   IN    ITALY. 

THE    EARLY    RENAISSANCE,     1400-1500. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  Bode,  Die  italienische  Plastik ; 
Italienische  Bildhauer  der  Renaissance  ;  Denkmdler  der  Sculp- 
tur  der  Renaissance  in  Toskana.  Bode  und  Tschudi,  £e- 
schreibung  der  Bildwerke  der  christlichen  Epoche  in  Konigl. 
Museum  zu  Berlin.  Burchardt  (Bode's  Edition),  Der  Cicerone. 
Burchardt,  The  Renaissance  in  Italy.  Cavallucci  et  Molinier, 
Les  Delia  Robbia.  Dohme,  Kunstund  Kiinstler  Italiens.  Mar- 
quand,  "  A  Search  for  Delia  Robbia  Monuments  in  Italy,"  in 
Scribner's  Mag.,  Dec.,  1893.  Miintz,  Histoire  de  T  Art  pendant 
la  Renaissance  :  Italie  ;  La  Renaissance  en  Italic  et  en  France  ; 
Les  Pre'curseurs  de  la  Renaissance.  Paravicini ,  Le  Arte  del  Di- 
segno  in  Italia.  Perkins,  Tuscan  Sculptors  ;  Italian  Sculptors  j 
Historical  Handbook  of  Italian  Sculpture  ;  Ghiberti  et  son 
Ecole.  Reymond,  La  SculptJtre  Florentine  ;  Les  Delia  Robbia. 
Robinson,  Catalogue  of  Italian  Sculpture  of  the  Middle  Ages  and 
Period  of  the  Reinval  of  Art  in  the  S.  Kensington  Museum. 
Schmarsow,  Donatello.  Semper,  Donatella,  seine  Zeit  und 
Schule  ;  Donatello* s  Leben  und  Werke.  Symonds,  Renaissance 
in  Italy :  The  Fine  Arts.  Tschudi,  Donatello  e  la  Critisa 
Moderna.  Vasari  (Milanesi's  Edition),  Le  Vite  de1  piu  Exce'- 
lenti  Pi/tori,  Scitltori  ed  Architettori.  Yriarte,  Matteo  Civitali. 
fahrbuch  der  Konigl.  preuss.  Kunstsammlungen. 

POLITICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS.  The  transition  from 
feudalism  to  monarchy,  which  occurred  in  Spain.  France, 
Germany,  and  England,  had  no  precise  parallel  in  Italy.  Feu- 
dalism was  a  northern,  not  a  southern,  institution,  and  was 
foreign  to  the  Italian  spirit.  A  variety  of  political  conditions 
existed  in  Italy  during  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries. 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE   IN   ITALY. 


177 


There  were  the  Duchies  of  Savoy  and  of  Milan,  the  Republics 
of  Genoa,  Venice,  Florence,  and  Siena ;  a  large  portion  of 
Central  Italy  was  comprised  in  the  States  of  the  Church ;  and 
the  whole  of  Southern  Italy  and  Sicily  belonged  to  the  King- 
dom of  Naples.  Nevertheless,  a  tendency  toward  monarchy 


FIG.   67. — STORY    OF   ABRAHAM    (BY   GHIBERTl).        BAPTISTERY   GATE,    FLORENCE. 

prevailed.  Petty  provinces  were  subjected  by  the  stronger,  and 
families  and  individuals  acquired  power  superior  to  that  of  the 
commune.  In  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  the  patron- 
age of  the  arts  came  largely  from  families  like  the  Visconti  and 
Sforza  at  Milan,  the  (lonzaga  family  at  Mantua,  the  Morue- 
feltro  at  Urbino,  the  Malatesta  at  Rimini,  the  Este  at  Ferrara 

12 


178  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

and  Modena,  the  Bentivoglio  at  Bologna,  and  the  Medici  at 
Florence.  The  same  furtherance  of  the  arts  was  shown  by  the 
popes  of  Rome,  especially  by  Sixtus  IV.  and  Julius  II. 

A  similar  transformation  took  place  in  the  status  of  the 
artist.  The  committee  in  charge  of  the  construction  of  the 
Duomoof  Florence  yielded  to  an  individual  architect — Brunel- 
leschi.  Similarly,  the  habit  of  consigning  the  construction  of 
baptistery  and  sacristy  doors,  high  altars  and  pulpits,  to  two  or 
more  sculptors  passed  away,  and  greater  recognition  was  given 
to  the  result  of  a  single  mind.  In  fact,  the  history  of  all  the 
arts  at  this  period  becomes  less  and  less  a  history  of  schools, 
and  is  more  and  more  concerned  with  the  works  of  individual 
artists.  If  individualism  be  an  important  feature  of  Renais- 
sance civilization,  a  no  less  striking  characteristic  is  its  natural- 
ism. The  growth  of  physical  and  historical  science,  the  culti- 
vation of  classical  literature,  the  increase  of  comfort  and 
pleasure  in  all  forms  of  social  life,  are  witnesses  to  a  new  spirit. 
This  is  seen  in  sculpture  in  the  increase  of  contemporary  sub- 
jects as  well  as  in  the  change  from  a  conventional  to  a  more 
naturalistic  treatment  of  proportions,  anatomical  structure, 
drapery,  and  perspective. 

A  third  characteristic,  implied  in  the  name  Renaissance,  was 
a  revival  of  classical  subjects,  methods,  and  forms.  Through- 
out the  Middle  Ages,  Italy  never  wholly  lost  the  remembrance 
of  Greek  and  Roman  art,  but  its  power  was  seriously  checked 
by  German  and  Lombard  and  Frankish  influences.  The  return 
to  classical  forms  in  sculpture  maybe  said  to  have  begun  at  the 
time  of  Niccola  Pisano,  and,  though  checked  in  the  fourteenth 
century,  it  continued  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Through  a 
greater  part  of  the  fifteenth  century  Gothic  traditions  survived 
in  many  directions,  but  usually  assumed  something  of  a  classic 
garb.  The  classic  spirit  did  not  have  an  all-controlling  influ- 
ence until  the  early  sixteenth  century. 

SUBJECTS.  The  demand  for  sculpture  in  the  fifteenth  and 
sixteenth  centuries  remained  chiefly  ecclesiastical.  The  exte- 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE   IN   ITALY.  1/9 

riors  of  churches  were  decorated  with  sculptures,  not  only 
around  and  over  the  portals,  but  sometimes  the  entire  facade 
was  covered  with  statues  in  niches  and  reliefs  of  figured  or 
decorative  design.  In  the  interiors  were  sculptured  altar- 
pieces,  pulpits,  choir -galleries,  fonts,  ciboria,  tabernacles, 
candlesticks,  single  statues  of  saints  and  angels,  crucifixes, 
Madonnas,  and  sometimes  large  groups  of  statues.  Cathedral, 
baptistery,  and  sacristy  doors  were  frequently  cast  in  bronze 
and  adorned  with  reliefs ;  while  the  choir  stalls  were  orna- 
mented with  figured  carvings  and  inlaid  pictures  of  variegated 
woods.  On  the  interior  walls  of  Renaissance  churches  were 
large  architectural  tombs,  commemorating  not  merely  ecclesi- 
astical rulers,  but  also  generals,  statesmen,  poets,  and  mere 
private  individuals.  The  sepulchral  slab  on  the  church  floor 
was  not  infrequently  carved  in  relief,  with  the  figure  projecting 
sometimes  above  the  floor  or  set  upon  a  raised  base. 

Palaces  and  private  houses  were  provided  with  sculptural 
ornament  about  their  portals,  with  friezes  and  chimney  pieces, 
carved  or  moulded  ceilings,  decorative  furniture,  portrait 
statues  and  busts,  statuettes,  and  a  host  of  useful  objects 
whic'i  were  carved  or  beaten  or  moulded  into  beautiful  forms. 
Open  squares  and  private  gardens  were  adorned  with  statues  and 
fountains  and  vases,  executed  by  the  most  distinguished  sculp- 
tors. Even  the  country  highways  had  their  shrines,  with  cruci- 
fixes or  reliefs  of  Madonnas  or  saints,  frequently  a  reproduction 
in  terracotta  or  stucco  of  the  work  of  a  master. 

The  subjects  of  ecclesiastical  sculpture  were  natural  lyselected 
from  the  Old  and  New  Testament  and  from  the  lives  of  the 
saints.  The  Madonna  with  the  Child  is  the  most  universal  and 
characteristic  subject  during  the  Early  Renaissance.  Later  she 
appears  frequently  accompanied  by  saints.  Legends  from  the 
life  of  Christ,  of  the  Madonna,  of  St.  Francis  or  of  special 
patron  saints,  were  common  in  sculpture  as  in  painting.  Deco- 
rative motives  of  classic  origin  were  freely  introduced  into 
ecclesiastical  sculpture,  but  mythological  subjects  more  rarely. 


i8o 


HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 


Amorini,  or  Cupids,  were,  however,  used  so  frequently  as  to 
render  the  putto,  or  child,  a  characteristic  figure  in  Early 
Renaissance  sculpture.  By  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century 
such  subjects  as  Leda  and  the  Swan  and  Jupiter  and  Ganymede 
were  introduced  upon  the  very  portals  of  St.  Peter's  in  Rome. 
In  sculpture  of  a  civic  or  a  domestic  character,  classic  themes 

were  frequently  em- 
ployed. Ancient 
myths  were  retrans- 
lated into  sculp- 
ture ;  ancient  gems 
and  coins  and 
medals  and  statues, 
which  were  now 
being  collected  by 
wealthy  patrons  of 
art,  and  sometimes 
by  artists  them- 
selves, became  an 
important  source  of 
inspiration  both  for 
subjects  and  for 
forms. 

MATERIALS  AND 
TECHNIQUE.  The 
precious  metals, 
gold  and  silver, 
played  a  less  im- 
portant role  than  in 

the  Gothic  period.  The  goldsmith's  atelier  continued  for  a 
time  to  be  the  art  school  from  which  issued  architects,  sculp- 
tors, and  painters.  But  his  influence  was  gradually  restricted 
to  work  in  the  precious  metals,  and  the  arts  became  more 
independent  of  each  other.  Bronze  now  assumed  a  more  im- 
portant role,  being  used  for  reliefs  first,  then  for  statues,  busts, 


FIG.    68. — HEAD   OF  THE   ST.    GEORGE     (BY    DONATELLO). 
OR   SAN    MICHELE,    FLORENCE. 


RENAISSANCE  SCULPTURE   IN    ITALY.  l8l 

candelabra,  and  minor  objects.  It  was  a  favorite- material 
with  Renaissance  artists,  not  only  on  account  of  its  durability 
and  ductility,  but  also  because  of  its  brilliant  effect  when 
gilded.  Considerable  difficulty  was  experienced  at  first  in 
bronze-casting.  The  form  was  crude,  and  the  chisel  had  to  be 
used  freely  in  finishing.  The  early  bronzes  were  not  highly 
polished.  In  time  these  difficulties  vanished,  and  a  high 
degree  of  technical  perfection  was  reached  in  the  sixteenth 
century. 

In  stone  sculpture  the  growing  demand  for  delicate  and 
refined  form,  notably  in  decorative  detail,  led  to  an  extensive 
use  of  marble  and  the  finer  calcareous  stones,  such  as  the 
pietra  d'  Istria,  and  the  finer  sandstones,  such  as  the  pietra 
serena.  The  white  Carrara  marble  was  extensively  used  for 
monumental  sculpture,  but  was  softened  in  color  by  the  use  of 
wax.  Details  such  as  the  hair,  angels'  wings,  ornaments  of 
robes,  and  architectural  mouldings  were  usually  gilded.  The 
background,  when  not  sculptured,  was  commonly  colored. a 
grayish  blue.  Highly  polychromatic  marble  sculpture  was 
rare. 

The  sphere  of  sculpture  was  considerably  enlarged  by  the 
use  of  terracotta.  This  afforded  a  cheap  substitute  for  mar- 
ble, and  when  glazed  was  equally  durable.  Coloring  beneath 
the  glaze  received  also  a  permanent  polychromatic  character. 
Altar-pieces,  pulpits,  fonts,  tabernacles,  and  coats  of  arms,  in 
this  material,  became  widely  scattered,  reaching  the  remotest 
country  towns.  A  still  cheaper  material  was  found  in  a  fine 
stucco,  composed  of  marble  dust  and  sand.  Reproductions  of 
the  works  of  master  sculptors  were  thus  placed  in  the  hands  of 
the  common  people.  Sculpture  in  wood  was  confined  chiefly 
to  thickly  wooded  districts. 

In  technical  execution  the  methods  of  classic  sculptors  were 
largely  employed.  Similar  implements  were  used  and  many 
of  the  same  conventions  followed.  But  the  spirit  of  the 
Renaissance  was  more  pictorial.  Designs  upon  paper  were 


182  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 

regarded  by  many  as  fundamental ;  perspective,  the  multipli- 
cation of  the  planes,  the  use  of  all  gradations  of  relief,  were 
common.  Preliminary  studies,  and  models  in  clay,  wax,  or 
wood,  were  sometimes  carried  far  enough  by  the  artist  to  per- 
mit of  the  execution  of  the  work  in  bronze  or  marble  by  an 
artisan. 


CHAPTER   XIX. 
RENAISSANCE  SCULPTURE  IN  ITALY.— CONTINUED. 

THE    EARLY    RENAISSANCE,     1400-1500. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  The  books  before  mentioned  and 
General  and  Special  Bibliographies. 

THE  FLORENTINE  SCHOOL.  The  impulse  given  to  Flor- 
entine sculpture  by  Andrea  Pisano,  Giotto,  and  Orcagna  was 
strongly  felt  in  the  early  portion  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
goldsmiths,  from  whose  ateliers  issued  the  most  distinguished 
sculptors,  also  exerted  a  determining  influence,  as  may  be  seen 
by  comparing  such  works  as  the  silver  altar-front  in  the  cathe- 
dral at  Pistoja  or  the  silver  dossal  from  the  Baptistery  of 
Florence  with  the  Early  Renaissance  reliefs.  The  marble 
sculptors  employed  upon  the  Cathedral  of  Florence  at  the  end 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  especially  Piero  di  Giovanni  Tedesco, 
were  already  producing  naturalistic  sculptures  and  mingling 
classic  with  Christian  themes.  Though  probably  of  German 
origin,  Piero's  work  was  thoroughly  Italian,  we  may  even  say 
Venetian,  in  treatment.  The  leading  Florentine  sculptors  of 
the  first  half  of  the  fifteenth  century  were  Ghiberti,  Donatello, 
and  Luca  del  la  Robbia. 

LORENZO  DI  CIONE  GHIBERTI  (1378-1455)  received  his  techni- 
cal education  from  his  stepfather  Bartolo,  a  noted  goldsmith. 
He  began  his  career  as  a  painter,  but  his  instincts  were  essen- 
tially those  of  the  sculptor  of  small  objects.  In  his  De 
Orificeria  Benvenuto  Cellini  says  of  him:  "  Lorenzo  Ghiberti 
was  truly  a  goldsmith,  not  only  in  his  graceful  manner  of  pro- 


1 84  •   HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

ducing  objects  of  beauty,  but  in  the  extreme  diligence  and 
polish  which  he  gave  to  his  work.  He  put  his  whole  soul  into 
the  casting  of  miniature  works,  and  though  he  sometimes 
applied  himself  to  sculpture  upon  a  larger  scale,  still  we  can 
see  that  he  was  much  more  at  home  in  making  smaller  objects." 
Ghiberti's  chief  works  as  a  goldsmith  were  a  golden  mitre  and 
pluvial  button  for  Pope  Martin  V.  (1419)  and  a  golden  mitre 
for  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  (1439).  These  magnificent  mitres, 
enriched  with  miniature  reliefs  and  figures  and  adorned  with 
precious  stones,  seem  to  have  been  melted  down  in  1527  to 
provide  funds  for  the  impoverished  Pope  Clement  VII.  More 
fortunate  were  his  works  in  bronze.  As  far  as  is  known,  these 
all  survive.  Ghiberti  applied  himself  to  bronze  with  the  spirit 
of  the  goldsmith.  Having  in  an  open  competition  proved 
himself  superior  to  his  Sienese,  Aretine,  and  Florentine  com- 
petitors, he  secured  the  contract  for  a  pair  of  bronze  doors  for 
the  baptistery  at  Florence  (1403-1424).  These  followed  the 
scheme  of  the  doors  made  for  the  same  baptistery  by  Andrea 
Pisano,  and  represented  in  twenty-eight  panels  the  life  of  Christ, 
the  four  Evangelists,  and  the  four  Fathers  of  the  Church. 

As  compared  with  Andrea's  doors,  those  of  Ghiberti  were 
richer  in  composition,  higher  in  relief,  and  more  naturalistic 
in  treatment.  A  fine  sense  of  line  is  seen  in  the  graceful, 
flowing  draperies  which  adorn  Ghiberti's  figures.  The  three 
statues  of  John  the  Baptist  (1414),  St.  Matthew  (1420),  and 
St.  Stephen  (1422),  which  stand  in  niches  on  the  exterior  of  Or 
San  Michele,  show  his  rapid  progress  in  monumental  sculpture. 
The  St.  Stephen  alone  frees  him  from  the  charge  of  being  a 
mere  sculptor  of  miniatures.  The  transition  from  his  first  to 
his  second  manner  may  be  studied  in  the  reliefs  he  made  for 
the  font  in  the  baptistery  at  Siena  (1417-1427). 

The  fulness  of  Ghiberti's  style  was  reached  in  his  second 
pair  of  doors  for  the  baptistery  at  Florence.  His  aim,  no 
longer  that  of  a  Gothic  sculptor,  may  be  best  stated  in  his  own 
words:  "  I  tried  as  far  as  possible  to  imitate  nature  with  all 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE   IN   ITALY. 


I85 


her  varied  qualities  and  to  enrich  my  compositions  with  many 
figures.  In  some  of  the  reliefs  I  have  put  as  many  as  a  hun- 
dred figures,  in  some  more,  in  others  less.  I  executed  the 
work  with  diligence  and  enthusiasm.  In  the  ten  subjects 
treated,  I  have  represented  the  buildings  in  such  proportions 
as  they  appear  to  the  eye,  and  in  such  a  manner  that  from  a 
distance  they  seem  to  be  detached  from  the  background.  They 


FIG.  69.— EQUESTRIAN  STATUE  OF  GATTAMELATA.   PADUA. 

have  little  relief  and,  as  in  nature,  the  nearer  figures  are  larger 
and  the  remoter  smaller.  With  similar  sense  of  proportion 
have  I  carried  out  the  entire  work." 

The  most  impressive  quality  of  these  baptistery  doors  is  the 
masterly  treatment  of  sculptural  perspective.  Ghiberti  had 
advanced  to  the  use  of  successive  planes  of  graded  relief,  even 
to  the  substitution  of  curved  for  flat  planes.  In  this  direction 


1 86  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 

he  surpassed  all  of  his  contemporaries.  As  compositions,  the 
separate  panels  merit  careful  study,  so  harmoniously  did  he 
combine  various  incidents,  and  arrange  his  figures  so  as  to 
make  a  single  incident  most  significant.  It  was  no  empty 
praise  when  Michelangelo  declared  these  doors  to  be  worthy  of 
standing  as  the  gates  to  Paradise. 

Contemporary  with  Ghiberti  may  be  mentioned  Filippo 
Brunelleschi  (1379-1446),  one  of  the  competitors  for  the  first 
baptistery  doors,  and  a  helpful  friend  to  Donatello ;  Nanni  di 
Banco  (d.  1420),  whose  statues  of  St.  Eligius  at  Or  San 
Michele,  of  St.  Luke  in  the  cathedral,  and  the  Assumption  of 
the  Madonna  over  the  north  portal  are  works  of  merit ;  Niccolo 
d'  Arezzo  (b.  about  1370),  who  was  associated  with  Piero  di 
Giovanni  on  the  north  portal  of  the  cathedral.  Lorenzo  Ghi- 
berti's  son,  Vittorio  Ghiberti  (b.  1417),  author  of  the  decorative 
frieze  around  Andrea  Pisano's  doors,  and  his  grandson,  Buon- 
accorso,  both  goldsmiths  and  bronze-casters,  represent  the 
decadence  of  Ghiberti 's  influence. 

DONATELLO  (1386-1466)  was  the  most  representative  sculp- 
tor of  the  Early  Renaissance.  His  works,  arranged  in  a  chrono- 
logical series,  reflect  the  changing  spirit  of  the  times.  Up  to 
the  year  1425  his  works  were  thoroughly  Gothic  in  treatment. 
His  statues  for  the  Cathedral,  for  the  Campanile,  and  for  Or 
San  Michele  are  in  general  awkward  in  pose,  heavy  with  dra- 
pery, and  lacking  in  gracefulness.  Evangelists  and  prophets 
are  little  more  than  portrait  statues  of  his  own  contemporaries. 
Even  the  Christ  is  but  a  peasant.  In  this  series  the  St.  George 
is  a  marked  exception,  an  outburst  of  creative  force  and 
energy. 

From  the  year  1425  to  his  visit  to  Padua  in  1444,  Donatello 
produced  his  best  works.  This  may  be  considered  his  classic 
period.  His  reputation  now  extended  beyond  Florence,  and 
we  find  him  executing  orders  for  Prato,  Siena,  Montepulciano, 
Orvieto,  Rome,  and  Naples.  He  associated  with  him  Miche- 
lozzo  Michelozzi,  an  accomplished  architect  and  bronze-caster. 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE   IN   ITALY.  l8/ 

Michelozzo  appears  to  have  executed  for  him  the  greater  part 
of  three  important  tombs;  that  of  Pope  John  XXIII.  in  the 
Baptistery  of  Florence,  the  Brancacci  tomb  in  Naples,  and  the 
Aragazzi  tomb  at  Montepulciano.  In  his  relief  work  of  this 
period  Donatello  exhibited  perspective  effects  by  the  use  of 
retreating  flat  planes,  notably  on  the  font  in  the  baptistery  of 
Siena.  Even  in  the  use  of  somewhat  higher  relief,  as  in  the 
pulpit  at  Prato,  and  the  organ  gallery  for  the  Florence  Cathe- 
dral, he  followed  the  same  method.  The  fertility  of  his  fancy 
is  chiefly  exhibited  in  his  decorative  compositions.  What 
could  be  more  charming  or,  at  the  same  time,  more  representa- 
tive of  the  spirit  of  the  times  than  his  Bacchanalian  Dance  of 
Young  Angels  for  the  organ  gallery,  or  the  Cupid  and  Psyche 
composition  on  the  base  of  the  Judith  and  Holophernes  group 
in  the  Loggia  dei  Lanzi  !  The  realism  of  his  earliest  period 
seems  to  have  been  replaced  by  a  refined  classicism  in  his 
bronze  David  in  the  Muzeo  Nazionale  and  in  the  beautiful 
tabernacle  containing  Verrocchio's  group  of  the  Doubting 
Thomas  at  Or  San  Michele.  There  was  another  side  to 
Donatello's  nature,  a  desire  to  produce  a  dramatic  effect.  This 
we  already  perceive  in  the  Assumption  relief  of  the  Brancacci 
monument  and  in  the  Bewailing  of  the  Dead  Christ  in  the 
sacristy  of  St.  Peter's. 

A  third  period  of  Donatello's  career  began  with  his  visit  to 
Padua  in  1444,  and  extended  until  his  death  in  1466.  The 
dramatic  talent  to  which  he  had  given  but  little  expression  in 
earlier  days,  now  reached  its  fullest  development.  His  first 
work  for  Padua,  the  equestrian  statue  of  Gattamelata,  exhibited 
a  considerable  degree  of  classic  restraint,  but  the  history  of  his 
work  in  relief,  from  the  S.  Antonio  altar-reliefs  in  Padua  to 
the  bronze  pulpits  of  S.  Lorenzo  in  Florence,  is  the  story  of 
decline.  Exaggerated  emotion,  confused  composition,  and  a 
lax  handling  of  form  and  drapery  characterize  these  later  re- 
liefs. They  are  prototypes  of  the  Rococo  spirit  into  which 
Italian  sculpture  was  destined  to  fall. 


188 


HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 


Two  sculptors  may  be  associated  with  Donatello's  early 
manner :  Nanni  di  Bartolo,  called  II  Rosso,  who  made  several 
statues  of  prophets  for  Giotto's  Campanile,  and  Bernardo 
Ciuffagni  (1385-1456),  author  of  the  seated  St.  Matthew  in 
the  Florence  Cathedral.  Agostino  di  Duccio  (1418-1481)  drew 
considerable  inspiration  from  Donatello's  best  work,  though  his 
treatment  of  drapery  may  be  described  as  an  exaggeration  of 
the  manner  of  Ghiberti.  Witness  his  interesting,  but  man- 


no.    70. — LUNETTE   (BY   LUCA   DELLA   ROBBIA).      VIA   DELL*   AGNOLO,   FLORENCE. 

nered,  sculptures  upon  the  fafade  of  S.  Bernardino  at  Perugia 
and  the  reliefs  in  S.  Francesco  at  Rimini. 

Michelozzo  Michelozzi  (1391-1473)  was  closely  associated 
with  Donatello  during  his  best  period,  and  executed  some  of  his 
designs;  but  Michelozzo's  own  work  in  sculpture  was  com- 
monplace. More  distinguished  sculptors,  Desiderio,  the 
Rossellini,  and  Mino  da  Fiesole,  owed  much  to  Donatello; 
and  that  master's  later  manner  was  followed  and  exaggerated 
by  Bertoldo  di  Giovanni  (d.  1491),  who  completed  the  pulpits 
at  S.  Lorenzo.  It  found  followers  also  in  the  Paduan  school 
of  sculpture. 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE   IN   ITALY.  189 

LUCA  DELIA  ROBBIA  (1399-1482)  was  the  equal  of  his  great 
contemporaries  in  the  production  of  beautiful  forms.  Less 
venturesome  with  new  methods  than  Ghiberti,  less  dramatic  in 
spirit  than  Donatello,  his  Madonnas  and  Saints  made  him  the 
typical  religious  sculptor  of  his  day.  His  early  training  is 
said  to  have  been  under  the  goldsmith  Leonardo  di  Ser  Gio- 
vanni. He  is  known  to  have  executed  a  few  works  in  bronze, 
notably  the  dignified  portals  of  the  sacristy  of  the  Cathedral 
of  Florence.  As  a  marble  sculptor,  his  choir-gallery  reliefs 
(1431-1440)  show  him  to  be  a  master  of  composition  and 
possessed  of  pure  religious  sentiment.  His  marble  tomb  of 
Bishop  Benozzo  Federighi,  now  in  the  church  of  S.  Trinita,  is 
full  of  quiet  grandeur  and  is  enshrined  in  a  frame  of  ex- 
quisitely beautiful  design. 

As  the  founder  of  a  school  of  glazed-terracotta  sculpture, 
Luca's  influence  was  far-reaching.  His  own  works  were  made 
chiefly  for  Florence  and  its  immediate  neighborhood,  while 
those  of  his  successors  were  widely  scattered.  His  style  exhib- 
ited a  continuous  development  without  marked  changes.  In 
his  early  works,  such  as  the  Resurrection  (i443)^and  the  Ascen- 
sion (1446),  lunettes  in  the  cathedral,  and  the  lunette  from 
S.  Pierino,  we  may  detect  the  influence  of  his  goldsmith 
master  and  of  Ghiberti.  More  freedom  and  independence  are 
exhibited  in  his  lunette  of  the  Madonna  and  Child  between 
two  Angels  over  a  doorway  from  the  Via  dell'  Agnolo,  in  the 
Apostle  medallions  in  the  Pazzi  Chapel,  and  in  the  beautiful 
group  of  the  Visitation  at  S.  Giovanni  Fuorcivitas,  Pistoja. 
It  was  in  1463  that  he  made  the  remarkable  medallion  for  the 
General  Council  of  Merchants,  and  probably  about  the  same 
time  the  fine  medallion  for  the  Guild  of  Stone  Masons  and 
Wood  Carvers,  both  of  which  adorn  the  exterior  of  Or  San 
Michele.  Among  his  later  works  may  be  placed  the  very 
beautiful  Tabernacle  of  the  Holy  Cross  at  Impruneta  and  a 
charming  Adoration  in  the  possession  of  M.  Foulc,  Paris. 
In  some  cases  Luca  made  use  of  colored  glazes,  but  more  fre- 


190  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 

quently  we  find  him  following  the  habit  of  the  marble  sculp- 
tors, merely  coloring  the  details,  such  as  the  eyes  and  eyebrows, 
or  painting  superficial  ornament  in  gold. 

A  considerable  impulse  to  the  production  of  beautiful  works 
in  glazed  terracotta  was  given  by  Luca  to  his  nephew,  Andrea 
della  Robbia  (1437-1528).  Andrea  made  a  wider  use  of  terra- 
cotta, and  carried  it  into  the  smaller  towns.  In  his  earliest 
works  at  La  Verna  and  Arezzo,  he  exhibited  much  of  the  dignity 
which  characterized  the  style  of  his  uncle.  Then  followed  a 
period  of  graceful  works,  best  illustrated  by  the  altar  in  the 
Osservanza  near  Siena  and  in  the  lunette  over  the  entrance  of 
the  cathedral  at  Prato.  In  the  lunette  of  the  cathedral  at 
Pistoja  and  in  those  over  the  doors  of  S.  Maria  della  Quercia 
at  Viterbo  his  style  lost  something  of  its  former  refined  senti- 
ment and  bordered  upon  sentimentality. 

In  the  following  century  Andrea's  sons  contributed  only  to 
the  decline  of  art.  Giovanni,  the  eldest  (1469-1529),  in  his 
early  years  produced  the  font  for  the  sacristy  (1497)  of  S. 
Maria  Novella,  much  in  the  spirit  of  his  father.  His  more 
independent  works,  such  as  the  Nativity  (1521)  in  the  Museo 
Nazionale,  the  Tabernacolo  della  Fontacine  (1522)  in  the  Via 
Nazionale,  and  the  medallions  at  the  Ceppo  Hospital  at  Pis- 
toja, exhibit  ignorance  of  composition  and  bad  taste  in  color. 
Fra  Mattia  in  his  high  altar  at  Montecassiano  (1527)  showed 
himself  a  better  artist,  but  Fra  Ambrogio  in  his  crude,  real- 
istic Nativity  (1504)  at  Siena  was  a  mere  artisan;  and  Luca 
di  Andrea,  who  executed  from  Raphael's  designs  the  pave- 
ments of  the  Vatican,  was  also  incapable  of  producing  artistic 
work  by  himself.  Girolamo,  the  youngest  (1488-1566),  carried 
the  traditions  of  the  school  to  France.  His  decorative  terra- 
cotta work  for  the  Chateau  de  Madrid,  though  much  admired, 
had  little  influence  upon  French  art. 

LATE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  FLORENTINE  SCULPTURE.  Dur- 
ing the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  demand  for 
monumental  works  in  sculpture,  both  in  marble  and  bronze, 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE   IN   ITALY.  19! 

was  much  increased.  The  churches  were  supplied  with  altar- 
pieces,  pulpits,  tabernacles,  and  tombs,  sculptured  in  the 
new  style,  and  the  palaces  were  provided  not  only  with  new 
sculptured  doorways,  friezes,  and  chimney  pieces,  but  were 


FIG.    71. — BUST   OK    blSHOP    LEONARDO   SALUTATI    (BY   MINO    DA    KIESOLK). 
FIESOLE   CATHEDRAL. 

stocked  with  portrait  busts.  The  most  distinguished  of  the 
Florentine  marble  sculptors  of  this  half  of  the  century  were 
Desiderio,  the  Rossellini,  Benedetto  da  Majano,  and  Mino 
da  Fiesole.  The  best  of  the  bronze -workers  of  the  same 


IQ2  HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 

period  were  Verrocchio  and  Pollajuolo.  Desiderio  da  Setti- 
gnano  (1428-1464)  caught  the  spirit  of  Donatello's  best  work, 
and  added  to  it  a  sense  of  harmony  and  a  refined  elegance 
which  were  distinctly  his  own.  His  wall  tomb  for  the  Chan- 
cellor Carlo  Marsuppini  (d.  1455)  in  S.  Croce  stands  at  the 
head  of  this  class  of  monuments.  So  also  is  his  marble  tab- 
ernacle in  S.  Lorenzo  one  of  the  finest  of  its  kind.  His 
busts  of  Marietta  Strozzi  and  of  a  Princess  of  Urbino  are 
models  of  dignity  and  refinement.  His  busts  of  children 
have  been  frequently  attributed  to  Donatello.  Though  short- 
lived, his  influence  was  lasting.  Bernardo  Rossellino  (1409- 
1464)  was  a  refined  technician,  but  as  an  artist  lacked  origi- 
nality. In  architecture  he  was  almost  a  slavish  follower  of 
Alberti,  and  in  sculpture  borrowed  much  from  his  predecessors 
and  contemporaries,  as  witness  his  celebrated  tomb  of  Leo- 
nardo Bruni  (d.  1444).  Antonio  Rossellino  (1427-1478),  a 
younger  brother  of  Bernardo,  surpassed  him  in  the  charm  and 
delicacy  of  his  work.  His  St.  Sebastian  in  the  Collegiate 
Church  at  Empoli  ranks  as  one  of  the  most  graceful  statues  of 
the  Early  Renaissance.  His  tomb  of  Cardinal  Portogallo 
(d.  1459)  at  San  Miniato,  though  lacking  in  architectural  sig- 
nificance, is  full  of  beauty.  His  low-reliefs  of  the  Madonna 
and  Child,  his  busts  and  his  heads  of  children  are  in  quality 
hardly  inferior  to  the  works  of  Desiderio. 

Mino  da  Fiesole  (1431-1484),  according  to  Vasari  the  pupil 
of  Desiderio,  produced  an  immense  number  of  altars,  taber- 
nacles, tombs,  reliefs,  and  busts.  He  was  a  skilful  workman, 
used  no  models,  and  brought  his  work  to  a  high  degree  of  finish. 
His  style  exhibited  much  of  Desiderio's  refinement,  without 
its  elevation;  it  had  the  charm  of  distinction,  coupled  with  a 
peculiar  mannerism.  In  spite  of  successive  visits  and  a  long 
residence  in  Rome,  he  received  no  new  impulse  from  classic 
antiquity.  His  Roman  productions  exhibit  more  elaborate 
compositions,  but  are  inferior  to  his  best  Florentine  work.  His 
masterpieces  are  in  the  cathedral  at  Fiesole — the  tomb  of 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE   IN    ITALY.  193 

Bishop  Leonardo  Salutati,  and  an  altar-piece  representing  the 
Madonna  with  the  Infant  Christ  and  the  little  St.  John,  together 
with  S.  Lorenzo  and  St.  Remigius. 

Benedetto  da  Majano  (1442-1497)  reflected  well  the  general 
spirit  of  his  age,  without  marked  individuality.  His  altar  of 
St.  Savinus  at  Faenza  (1470)  showed  strongly  the  influence  of 
Antonio  Rossellino;  his  St.  Sebastian  in  the  Misericordia  at 
Florence  was  almost  a  copy  of  Rossellino's  St.  Sebastian  at 
Empoli.  Rossellino's  influence  is  also  seen  in  Benedetto's 
works  at  S.  Gimignano.  More  important  is  his  celebrated 
pulpit  at  S.  Croce  in  Florence,  harmonious  in  its  proportions 
and  adorned  with  picturesque  reliefs  from  the  life  of  St. 
Francis.  The  problems  of  perspective,  which  were  exercising 
the  attention  of  the  painters,  were  here  prominently  illustrated 
in  sculpture.  Benedetto's  Madonnas,  whether  in  relief  or  in 
the  round,  lack  the  refinement  and  distinction  of  those  by  the 
earlier  masters.  They  are  well-fed,  luxurious  women  of  the 
middle  class. 

Matteo  Civitali  (1435-1501),  though  born  at  Lucca,  is  prop- 
erly a  representative  of  Florentine  sculpture.  We  see  in  his 
works  the  influence  of  Desiderio,  of  Antonio  Rossellino,  and 
even  of  Benedetto  da  Majano.  Nevertheless,  there  underlies 
this  an  emotional  element  which  is  not  so  obvious  in  Floren- 
tine work.  His  Christ  is  a  man  of  sorrows ;  his  angels  are 
adoring,  worshipful  angels;  his  Madonnas  are  tender-hearted 
mothers.  Lucca  and  its  vicinity,  and  Genoa,  contain  charming 
examples  of  his  work. 

THE  BRONZE-WOBKERS.  While  the  marble  sculptors  of 
Florence  contributed  largely  to  the  spread  of  grace  and  beauty, 
the  bronze-workers  were  no  less  active  in  bringing  their  art  to 
a  higher  stage  of  technical  perfection.  Antonio  Pollajuolo 
(1429-1498),  a  pupil  of  Ghiberti's  stepfather  Bartolo,  attained 
great  skill  as  a  goldsmith  and  caster  of  metals.  His  monu- 
ment of  Pope  Sixtus  IV.,  finished  in  1493,  was  a  develop- 
ment of  the  slab  tomb.  The  Pope  reclines  upon  a  highly 
13 


194 


HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 


ornamented  couch,  on  the  top  of  which  are  reliefs  of  the  seven 
Virtues,  and  on  the  sides  the  ten  Liberal  Arts.  In  this  tomb 
Pollajuolo  depended  for  effectiveness  upon  rich  detail  rather 


FIG.    72. — PULPIT    (BY   BENEDETTO    DA   MAJANO).      S.   CROCK,    FLORENCE. 

than  simple  mass.  Somewhat  incongruous  was  his  tomb  for 
Innocent  VIII.,  which,  like  the  preceding,  is  in  St.  Peter's, 
Rome.  Here  the  Pope  was  represented  as  living  and  blessing, 
enthroned  above  the  sarcophagus  on  which  reclines  the  Pope 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE   IN   ITALY. 


195 


dead.     In  his  little  bronzes,  in  the  National  Museum,  Florence, 
of  Marsyas  and  of  Hercules  and  Cacus,  we  see  the  same  striving 


FIG.    73. — BAKT01.OMMEO    COI.LEONI    (liY    VKRROCCH1O).       VHNICH. 

for  effect — the  foreshadow  of  a  declining  style.     If  the  base  of 
a  silver  cross,  highly  ornamented  with  statuettes,  in  the  Cathe- 


196  HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 

dral  Museum  of  Florence,  be  rightly  attributed  to  Pollajuolo, 
we  must  grant  that  he  possessed  an  architectural  sense  of  no 
mean  order.  He  was  also  the  founder  of  the  so-called  gold- 
smith school  of  painting. 

Andrea  del  Verrocchio  (1435-1488)  represented  the  best 
achievement  in  the  metal  work  of  his  day.  His  master  in  the 
goldsmith  art  was  Giuliano  Verrocchio,  but  he  acquired  style 
from  Donatello  and  Desiderio,  and  finally  developed  an  inde- 
pendent manner  of  his  own.  In  his  monument  to  Giovanni 
and  Piero  di  Cosimo  de'  Medici  (1472),  in  the  sacristy  of  S> 
Lorenzo,  he  adopted  from  Desiderio  the  motive  for  the  sar- 
cophagus, in  which,  however,  he  exhibited  a  preference  for 
straight  rather  than  curved  lines.  His  bronze  David  (1476),  in 
the  National  Museum,  breathes  the  spirit  of  Donatello,  but  is 
somewhat  more  angular.  More  independent  and  original  is 
his  Christ  and  the  Doubting  Thomas  (1483)  in  a  niche  on  the 
exterior  of  Or  San  Michele,  though  here  the  drapery  is  some- 
what heavy  and  angular,  as  it  is  also  in  the  marble  monument 
to  Cardinal  Forteguerra  in  the  cathedral  at  Pistoja.  His 
supreme  achievement  was  the  statue  of  Bartolommeo  Colleoni 
in  Venice.  Of  this  monument  Dr.  Bode  well  says  :  "  The 
Colleoni  stands  to-day  for  the  most  magnificent  equestrian 
statue  of  all  times ;  it  fully  deserves  this  reputation,  since  in 
no  other  monument  are  both  horse  and  rider  conceived  and 
composed  with  such  unity." 

Florence  was  the  centre  and  inspiration  of  Renaissance 
sculpture  during  the  fifteenth  century,  and  her  power  was  felt 
all  over  Italy.  Nevertheless,  there  were  other  centres,  such  as 
Siena,  Milan,  and  Pavia,  Modena,  Venice,  Padua,  and  Palermo^ 
from  which  issued  sculptors  of  independence  and  influence. 


CHAPTER   XX. 
RENAISSANCE  SCULPTURE   IN    ITALY. 

THE   EARLY   RENAISSANCE. —  Continued. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  See  the  list  of  books  at  the  begin- 
ning of  Chapter  XVIII. 

THE  SIENESE  SCHOOL.  Siena  remained  longer  than  Florence 
under  the  influence  of  Gothic  art.  Her  most  distinguished 
sculptor,  Jacopo  della  Quercia  (1371-1438),  developed  along 
the  same  path  as  Donatello.  His  earliest  works,  as  illustrated 
by  the  Fonte  Gaja  (1409-1419)  in  Siena,  were  thoroughly 
Gothic  in  character.  Then  followed  a  period  when  graceful 
motives  of  classic  origin  controlled  his  style.  To  this  time 
belongs  the  beautiful  tomb  of  Ilaria  del  Caretto  (1413)  in  the 
cathedral  at  Lucca.  Later,  a  dramatic  quality  appeared  in  his 
work.  This  character  is  exhibited  by  the  reliefs  about  the 
central  portal  of  S.  Petronio,  Bologna  (1425-1438).  Though 
somewhat  heavy,  their  dramatic  force  had  a  perceptible  influ- 
ence upon  the  work  of  Michelangelo. 

Quercia's  influence  was  not  marked  in  Siena.  Something  of 
his  Gothic  manner  was  perpetuated  in  the  hard,  dry,  but  tech- 
nically excellent  work  of  Lorenzo  Vecchietta  (1412-1480),  and 
something  of  his  classic  manner  may  be  seen  in  the  harmoni- 
ous work  of  Antonio  Federighi  (circa  1420-1490).  The  reliefs 
and  statuettes  of  Torino  di  Sano  and  Giovanni  di  Turino  for 
Quercia's  celebrated  font  in  the  baptistery  are  lacking  in  style, 
and  Francesco  di  Giorgio's  bronze  angels  (1439-1502)  in  the 
cathedral  are  exceedingly  mannered.  Giacomo  Cozzarelli 


198 


HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 


(1453-1515)  was  an  excel  lent  workman  in  bronze,  and  produced 
some  interesting  busts  in  terracotta.  In  Lorenzo  di  Mariano 
(d.  1534)  we  recognize  a  typical  Sienese  artist  of  higher 
quality.  His  high  altar  in  the  church  of  Fontegiusta  exhib- 
ited, in  its  sculptured  Pieta,  Sienese  tenderness  of  sentiment, 
and  its  elaborate  architectural  decoration  was  in  the  line  of 
development  of  Sienese  ornament. 

Quercia's  remarkable  work  at  Bologna  did  not  secure  for  him 


FIG.  74. — ILAKIA  DEL  CARETTO  (BY  JACOJ'O  DELLA  QUERCIA).   LUCCA  CATHEDRAL. 

a  school  of  followers  there.  Niccolo  da  Bari,  called  Niccolo 
dell'  Area  (1414-1494),  reflected  something  of  his  influence  in 
a  terracotta  Madonna  outside  of  the  Palazzo  Pubblico,  but  the 
work  which  gave  Niccolb  his  title  to  fame,  the  completion 
of  the  Area  di  S.  Domenico,  was  a  thoroughly  independent 
work.  The  varied  character  of  Niccolo's  style  may  be  still 
further  illustrated  by  a  group  of  the  Lamentation  over  the 
body  of  Christ,  in  the  little  church  of  S.  Maria  della  Vita, 
Bologna.  This  realistic,  emotional  group  seems  to  have  given 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE   IN   ITALY.  199 

an  impulse  to  Guido  Mazzoni  (1450-1518),  of  Modena,  whose 
works  of  a  similar  character  in  his  native  town,  in  Ferrara,  and 
in  Naples  formed  a  distinct  class  of  monuments,  foreign  to 
the  refined  spirit  of  the  Florentines,  but  popular  with  the  phil- 
istines  in  the  provinces.  Mazzoni  made  the  Italian  peasant 
participate  as  principal  actor  in  representations  of  sacred 
story.  His  work  may  be  regarded  as  one  phase  of  Lombard 
naturalism.  Elsewhere  in  Lombardy,  and  in  parts  of  Germany, 
similar  groups  were  popular. 

THE  MILANESE  SCHOOL.  In  Lombardy,  at  Bergamo,  Parma, 
Cremona,  and  especially  at  Milan  and  Pavia,  we  find  a  school 
of  sculptors  who  left  their  mark  over  a  large  portion  of  Italy, 
especially  in  the  north.  Gothic  traditions,  more  firmly  estab- 
lished than  in  Florence,  checked  but  did  not  overcome  the 
advance  of  the  Renaissance.  When  Michelozzo  came  from 
Florence  to  Milan  he  bent  his  style  to  suit  Milanese  taste. 
Here  there  was  a  demand  for  luxuriant  decoration,  which  was 
easily  embodied  in  terracotta.  In  this  decoration  we  find  a 
multiplication  of  details  rather  than  a  massive  treatment,  a 
subordination  of  the  larger  arts,  architecture  and  sculpture,  to 
the  minor  arts  of  the  joiner  and  the  miniature  painter.  But  if 
we  view  Lombard  sculpture  apart  from  its  surroundings,  it  has 
a  sharp,  crisp,  vigorous  character  which  commands  our  attention 
and  not  infrequently  our  admiration.  Especially  noteworthy 
are  the  sculptures  of  the  cathedral  at  Milan,  of  the  Certosa 
at  Pavia,  and  of  the  Colleoni  Chapel  at  Bergamo.  The  Man- 
tegazza  brothers,  Cristoforo  (d.  1482)  and  Antonio  (d.  1495), 
chief  sculptors  at  the  Certosa,  were  among  the  first  to  represent 
drapery  in  what  has  been  termed  the  cartaceous  manner,  from 
its  resemblance  to  wet  paper.  This  manner  was  hard,  academic, 
conventional.  Their  successor  Giovanni  Antonio  Omodeo 
(1447-1522),  in  his  decorative  sculptures  for  the  Colleoni 
Chapel,  and  in  the  tombs  of  Medea  and  Bartolommeo  Colleoni 
at  Bergamo,  in  his  work  for  the  exterior  and  interior  of  the 
Certosa  at  Pavia,  and  in  the  Borrommeo  monuments  at  Isola 


2OO 


HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 


Bella  in  the  Lago  Maggiore,  exhibited  a  marked  advance  in 
the  direction  of  naturalism  and  classic  beauty. 

Other  Milanese  sculptors,  who  lived  on  into  the  sixteenth 
century,  were :  Cristoforo  Solari,  whose  Beatrice  and  Ludo- 
vico  il  Moro  at  the  Certosa  were  conceived  in  the  spirit  of 
the  Early  Renaissance,  but  whose  works  produced  subsequent 
to  his  visit  to  Rome  showed  the  influence  of  Michelangelo; 


FIG.    75. — SCULPTURES    FROM   THE   CERTOSA   AT   PAVIA. 

Caradosso  (1445  P-I527),  who  was  considered  by  Benvenuto 
Cellini  the  most  skilful  goldsmith  he  ever  met,  and  whose 
terracotta  reliefs  in  the  sacristy  of  S.  Satire  were  almost  equal 
to  the  works  of  Donatello  ;  and  Agostino  Busti,  called  Bambaja 
(1480-1548),  whose  unfinished  monument  to  Gaston  de  Foix, 
though  somewhat  mannered  in  style,  carried  to  its  utmost 
limit  the  application  of  the  miniature  style  to  monumental 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE   IN    ITALY.  2OI 

sculpture.  When  we  add  to  these  the  names  of  Andrea  Bregno 
(1411-1506),  of  Andrea  Fusina  (fl.  1495),  of  Ambrogino  da 
Milano  (fl.  1475),  a^  °f  whom  produced  works  of  admirable 
quality,  we  find  a  strong  and  powerful  school  of  sculptors,  not 
the  product  of  Florentine  influence,  but  of  local  development. 

Milanese  sculptors  largely  supplied  the  demand  for  sculp- 
ture in  Genoa,  Bergamo,  Brescia,  and  other  North  Italian 
towns.  As  we  turn  toward  the  east,  the  influence  of  Venice  is 
more  apparent.  Verona  maintained  her  Gothic  traditions 
strongly  enough  to  subject  a  Florentine  sculptor,  Giovanni  di 
Bartolo,  to  her  methods.  Her  style  was  half-Lombard,  half- 
Venetian,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  terracotta  decoration  by  the 
unknown  "  Master  of  the  Pellegrini  Chapel  "  in  the  church  of 
S.  Anastasia. 

THE  VENETIAN  SCHOOL.  Venice  produced  an  'independent 
school  of  sculptors,  whose  influence  radiated  to  Istria  and 
Dalmatia  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  Verona  and  Brescia  on  the 
other.  This  school  represented  a  taste  for  rich  decorative 
works,  less  prosaic  than  the  productions  of  the  Milanese,  and 
of  a  tenderer  sentiment  than  those  of  the  Florentines.  Both 
Milan  and  Florence  appealed  to  the  intellect,  Venice  to  the 
pleasurable  emotions  excited  by  graceful,  luxuriant  forms. 
The  Gothic  style  had  assumed  in  Venice  a  too  attractive  char- 
acter to  be  easily  cast  aside.  Accordingly,  the  transitional 
period,  in  which  Gothic  motives  lived  on  by  the  side  of  those 
of  the  Renaissance,  was  a  long  one  in  Venice.  Outsiders  like 
Piero  di  Niccolo  of  Florence  and  Giovanni  di  Martino  of 
Fiesole,  as  may  be  seen  in  their  tomb  for  the  Doge  Tommaso 
Mocenigo  (d.  1423),  produced  works  in  accord  with  Venetian 
traditions.  Neither  Donatello  and  his  followers  at  Padua 
nor  Antonio  Rizo  of  Verona  had  any  marked  influence  in 
changing  the  trend  of  Venetian  sculpture.  The  continuity  of 
its  development  is  exhibited  in  the  transitional  work  of  Bar- 
tolommeo  Buon  in  the  decoration  of  the  Porta  della  Carta  of 
the  Doge's  palace,  and  reached  the  naturalistic,  classic,  and 


2O2 


HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 


humanistic  stage  in  the  work  of  Pietro  Lombardo  (d.  1515). 
Lombard  modes  of  composition  are  evident  in  his  tombs  for 
the  Doges  Niccolb  Marcello  (d.  1474)  and  Pietro  Mocenigo 
(d.  1476),  but  a  thoroughly  Venetian  charm  and  exquisite 


FIG.    76. — SCULPTURED    BASE   AT  S.    MAK1A    DEI    MIRACOLI,    VENICE. 

fancy  pervade  his  decorative  sculptures  at  S.  Maria  dei  Mira- 
coli.  His  son,  Tullio  Lombardo,  who  may  have  assisted  him  at 
S.  Maria  dei  Miracoli,  exhibited  an  artificial  grace  in  his  more 
independent  work  for  the  Chapel  of  S.  Antonio  at  Padua. 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE   IN   ITALY.  2O3 

Tullio's  younger  brother,  Antonio  Lombardo,  lacked  even 
artificial  gracefulness  in  his  work.  Alessandro  Leopard!  (d. 
1522),  however,  showed  himself  a  worthy  successor  of  Pietro, 
in  his  charming  base  for  the  Colleoni  statue,  in  his  sculptured 
work  for  the  tomb  of  the  Doge  A.  Vendramin,  and  in  the 
bronze  flagstaffs  in  the  Piazza  S.  Marco. 

The  influence  of  the  Venetian  school  of  sculpture  extended 
southward  to  Ravenna,  Cesena,  Faenza,  and  Ancona. 

THE  PADUAN  SCHOOL.  Padua  during  the  fifteenth  century 
possessed  a  productive  and  influential,  if  not  very  distin- 
guished, school  of  sculptors.  She  had  forced  Donatello  to 
change  his  style  so  as  to  accord  with  her  inferior  canons  of 
taste.  His  pupils  became  most  popular  sculptors.  One  of 
the  most  skilful  was  Giovanni  da  Pisa,  author  of  the  terra- 
cotta figures  in  the  chapel  to  the  right  of  the  high  altar  in  the 
church  of  the  Eremitani.  More  productive  and  more  widely 
known  was  Bartolommeo  Bellano  (1430-1498),  whose  lifeless 
copies  in  Padua  of  the  work  of  Donatello  and  Desiderio 
showed  his  lack  of  originality,  while  the  reliefs  which  he  exe- 
cuted for  the  pulpits  in  S.  Lorenzo,  in  Florence,  were  full  of 
mannerism  and  a  straining  for  dramatic  effect.  His  manner 
became  somewhat  softened  after  his  residence  in  Venice, 
where,  about  1460,  he  executed  a  relief  for  the  fa£ade  of  S. 
Zaccaria.  His  successor  Andrea  Briosco,  called  Riccio  (1470- 
1532),  inherited  something  of  his  manner,  but  moderated  by  a 
wider  acquaintance  with  classic  art.  In  the  minor  arts  the 
fancy  of  Riccio  found  constant  stimulus.  In  the  production 
of  small  bronze  reliefs  for  the  decoration  of  many  household 
objects,  in  his  candlesticks  and  jewel  chests  and  figurines  he 
showed  himself  a  master,  and  stimulated  a  school  of  follow- 
ers known  by  such  pseudonyms  as  Antico,  Moclerno,  Ulocrino, 
etc.  When  he  attempted  monumental  works,  he  showed  him- 
self still  the  miniature  artist.  The  influence  of  the  Paduan 
school,  though  widely  extended,  was  chiefly  felt  in  Mantua  and 
Ferrara. 


2O4  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 

SCHOOLS  OF  CENTBAL  AND  SOUTHERN  ITALY.  Umbria,  the 
Marches,  and  the  Abruzzi  were  poor  in  native  sculptors. 
Through  many  towns  in  the  neighborhood  of  Arcevia,  Fra 
Mattia  della  Robbia  exerted  a  strong  influence  with  terracotta 
sculpture,  and  at  Aquila  interesting  monuments  were  executed 
by  the  pupils  of  Donatello,  Andrea  and  Silvestro  da  Aquila ; 
but  these  works  were  essentially  Florentine. 

Rome  seemed  to  lose  her  independence  in  sculpture  with 
the  expiration  of  the  Cosmati  school.  Her  best  monuments 
of  the  fifteenth  century  were  by  sculptors  of  other  schools, 
Donatello  and  Antonio  Pollajuolo,  Mino  da  Fiesole  and 
Giovanni  of  Dalmatia,  Isaia  of  Pisa,  Andrea  Bregno,  and 
Luigi  Capponi  of  Milan.  Eclecticism  prevailed  to  such  an 
extent  that  sculptors  representing  different  styles  each  impressed 
his  own  methods  upon  the  same  monument.  Native  sculptors 
were  few.  One  of  these,  Paolo  Taccone,  called  Romano, 
exhibited  a  Roman  preference  for  figures  in  the  round,  but  his 
general  style  was  dependent  on  that  of  Isaia  of  Pisa.  Still 
less  can  Gian-Cristoforo  Romano,  the  son  of  Isaia  of  Pisa, 
be  reckoned  as  representing  the  Roman  school.  He  drifted 
to  Lombardy,  and  there  worked  in  the  Milanese  style. 

Naples  exhibited  the  same  lack  of  independence.  Tuscan 
and  Lombard  sculptors  produced  the  finest  sculptural  monu- 
ments of  which  Naples  could  boast  during  this  century.  The 
only  native  artists  of  fame  were  Andrea  Ciccione  and  Antonio 
di  Domenico  da  Bamboccio  (1351-1422).  Their  work,  faulty 
in  design  and  extravagant  in  color,  was  far  behind  that  of  the 
northern  sculptors. 

In  Southern  Italy,  Renaissance  sculpture  was  conditioned  by 
preexisting  Byzantine  influence,  and  thus  approximated  the 
Venetian  type.  In  Sicily  an  influence  of  similar  character 
was  represented  in  the  work  of  Francesco  da  Laurana,  a  Dal- 
matian, while  the  types  and  methods  of  Domenico  Gagini  and 
his  son,  Antonio  Gagini  (1478-1536),  were  predominantly 
Lombard. 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE   IN   ITALY.  20$ 

EXTANT  MONUMENTS.  Early  Renaissance  sculpture  in  Italy  may  be 
best  studied  in  the  churches  and  public  buildings,  especially  in  Florence, 
Milan,  Venice,  Padua,  Rome.  The  most  important  museums  for  this 
purpose  are  the  Museo  Nazionale,  Florence  ;  the  Royal  Museum,  Berlin  ; 
the  Louvre,  Paris;  and  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  London.  A 
representative  collection  of  Renaissance  casts  is  to  be  found  in  the 
Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York. 


NOTE.  Since  these  chapters  on  Italian  Renaissance  Sculpture  were 
published  Bode's  Denkmaler  der  Sculptur  der  Renaissance  in  Toskana  has 
greatly  facilitated  study  in  this  field;  Marcel  Reymond's  La  Sculpture 
florentine  has  infused  into  it  a  new  interest,  and  Venturi's  Storia  dell'arte 
italiana,  Vol.  VI,  has  brought  many  obscure  monuments  into  view.  Indi- 
vidual sculptors  have  been  made  the  subjects  for  special  monographs,  of 
which  may  be  mentioned  Schub ring's  Donatella,  Cruttwell's  Luca  and 
Andrea  Delia  Robbia,  Antonio  Pollaiuolo,  Verrocchio;  and  Cornelius'  Jacopo 
della  Quercia.  Bode's  Die  italienischen  Bronze-statuetten  der  Renaissance 
and  Supino's  77  Medalgiere  Mediceo  extend  the  field  so  as  to  include  bronze 
statuettes  and  medals.  The  sources  of  Venetian  sculpture  have  been  placed 
at  our  disposal  in  the  publication  of  Paoletti's  L'architettura  e  la  scultura  del 
rinascimento  in  Venezia. 


CHAPTER   XXI. 

RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE   IN    ITALY. 

THE  DEVELOPED  RENAISSANCE  (1500-1600)  AND  THE  DECADENCE 
(l6oO-l8oo). 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  The  books  on  Renaissance  sculpture 
before  mentioned;  also:  Cellini,  Autobiography.  Desjardins, 
La  Vie  et  I 'CEuvre  de  Jean  Bologne.  Grimm,  Life  of  Michel- 
angelo. Guizzardi  e  Tomba,  Le  Opere  di  Guido  Mazzoni  e  di 
Antonio  Begarelli.  Plon,  Benvenuto  Cellini,  set  Vie  et  son 
CEuvre.  Schonfeld,  Sansovino  und  seine  Schule.  Springer, 
"  Raffael  und  Michelangelo,"  in  Dohme's  Kunst  und  Kiinstler 
Italiens.  Symonds,  Life  of  Michelangelo. 

CHANGE  IN  STYLE  AND  MOTIVE.  The  sixteenth  century  in 
Italy  witnessed  the  emancipation  of  sculpture  from  both 
architecture  and  painting.  Architecture  now  became  more 
sculpturesque.  Columns  were  substituted  for  pilasters ;  cor- 
nices and  mouldings  received  greater  projection,  allowing,  j. 
new  play  of  light  and  shade.  Painting  also  became  more 
plastic,  modelling  and  perspective  replacing  in  a  measure  the 
interest  in  outline  and  composition.  Sometimes  sculpture 
went  beyond  her  sphere  and  reduced  her  sister  arts  to  subjec- 
tion. In  the  great  wall  tombs,  sculptured  figures  became  over- 
prominent,  the  architectural  construction  being  treated  as  a 
mere  accessory.  Even  buildings  were  sometimes  mere  back- 
grounds for  sculptured  figures.  This  plastic  advance  w?s 
accompanied  by  many  changes.  The  beautiful  decorative  low- 
relief  of  the  Early  Renaissance  disappeared,  high-relief  and 
sculpture  in  the  round  taking  its  place.  Dignity  of  concep- 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE  IN   ITALY.  2O/ 

tion  and  design  received  less  attention  than  modulations  of 
modelling,  posing  of  arms  and  legs,  movement  in  drapery, 
the  carving  of  colossal  statues,  and  the  determined  effort  to 
produce  an  effect.  The  influence  of  classic  sculpture  was  sus- 
tained and  in  some  directions  increased,  but  only  occasionally 
did  it  lead  to  the  imitation  and  reproduction  of  ancient  forms. 

THE  FLOBENTINE  SCULPTORS.  Foremost  among  the  Floren- 
tine sculptors  of  this  period  was  Andrea  (Contucci  da  Monte) 
Sansavino  (1460-1529).  His  early  terracotta  altar-pieces  in 
S.  Chiara  at  Monte  Sansavino  followed  in  the  line  of  Ver- 
rocchio  and  Antonio  Rossellino,  and  exhibited  a  studied  grace- 
fulness. His  subsequent  residence  in  Portugal  added  little 
to  his  power  as  a  sculptor,  if  we  may  judge  him  by  the  life- 
less font  at  Volterra.  His  group  representing  the  Baptism 
of  Christ,  over  the  door  of  the  baptistery  at  Florence,  was 
on  a  level  with  the  work  of  Lorenzo  di  Credi  in  painting, 
and  marked  a  similar  decline  from  the  more  spirited  concep- 
tions of  Verrocchio.  In  Rome  his  tombs  of  the  Cardinals 
Ascanio  Sforza  and  Girolamo  Basso  della  Rovere,  though 
charming  in  decorative  detail,  illustrated  a  stage  in  which 
sculptural  and  architectural  motives  were  in  conflict,  neither 
contributing  to  the  effectiveness  of  the  other.  In  his  heads 
and  draperies  there  is  a  recognition  of  Roman  classic  art, 
but  the  proportions  of  his  figures  were  somewhat  heavy.  His 
later  work  at  Loreto  was  restless  and  mannered,  aiming  at 
effect  by  artificial  means.  His  pupil  Francesco  di  San  Gallo 
(1493-1570)  exhibited  something  of  his  master's  manner  and 
added  to  it  an  exaggerated  realism.  His  sculptural  slab  of 
Bishop  Leonardo  Bonafede,  at  the  Certosa  near  Florence,  was 
developed  from  the  low-relief  figured  slabs  of  the  late  Gothic 
and  Early  Renaissance  periods. 

Benedetto  da  Rovezzano  (1476-1556)  resembled  Andrea 
Sansavino  in  technical  quality,  but  surpassed  him  in  origi- 
nality. His  fancy  flowed  easily  in  delicate  floral  design,  and 
revelled  in  weird  combinations  of  skulls  and  cross-bones. 


208  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

His  tombs  of  Piero  Soderini  in  the  Carmine  and  of  Oddo 
Altoviti  in  SS.  Apostoli  in  Florence  interest,  if  they  do  not 
charm  us.  His  relief  in  the  Museo  Nazionale  illustrating  the 
Life  of  S.  Giovanni  Gualberto  exhibited  the  independence  of 
his  fancy.  His  tomb  for  Louis  XII.,  King  of  France,  and  the 
tomb  which  he  began  for  Cardinal  Wolsey  in  England  were 
influential  means  of  communicating  to  Northern  Europe  the 
traditions  of  the  Italian  Renaissance.  Piero  Torrigiano 
(1472-1522),  an  irascible  man  but  a  clever  sculptor,  also  went 
to  England,  and  there  made  the  tomb  of  Henry  VII.  and  Queen 
Elizabeth  in  Westminster  Abbey,  probably  also  the  tomb  of  the 
Countess  of  Richmond  in  the  adjoining  chapel.  Later  he 
went  to  Spain,  where  he  sculptured  several  monuments. 

THE  NOKTH  ITALIAN  SCULPTOKS.  In  Milan  and  Pavia  the 
line  of  distinguished  sculptors  appears  to  have  ceased  with 
Agostino  Busti.  His  successors  were  inferior  artists.  Leo- 
nardo da  Vinci  (1452-1519)  did  little  for  the  art  of  sculpture, 
and  established  no  school  in  that  art  as  he  did  in  painting. 
The  influence  of  Michelangelo  and  other  extraneous  influences 
prevailed. 

In  Modena,  however,  a  fonvard  step  was  taken  by  Antonio 
Begarelli  (1479-1565).  He  worked  in  terracotta,  making 
not  only  groups  for  niched  recesses,  but  also  altar-pieces  and 
statues.  His  earlier  works,  as,  for  example,  the  Bewailing  of 
Christ  in  S.  Maria  Pomposa,  strongly  betrayed  the  influence 
of  Mazzoni.  But  Begarelli,  with  less  depth  of  sentiment, 
had  more  varied  means  of  expression  and  exhibited  more 
movement  in  his  compositions  and  figures.  His  later  work, 
as  in  the  altar-piece  at  S.  Pietro  representing  Four  Saints  with 
the  Madonna  surrounded  by  Angels  in  the  Clouds,  was  imbued 
with  the  manner  and  spirit  of  Correggio.  In  fact,  Bega- 
relli's  sculpture  became  thoroughly  picturesque  in  treatment. 

In  Bologna  a  similar  course  of  development  may  be  seen  in 
the  work  of  Alfonso  Lombardi,  of  Lucca  (1497-1537).  His 
early  sculptures  at  Ferrara  and  in  the  crypt  of  S.  Pietro, 


RENAISSANCE  SCULPTURE   IN   ITALY.  209 

Bologna,  bore  a  close  relationship  to  the  works  of  Mazzoni. 
Later  the  influence  of  the  school  of  Andrea  Sansavino  made 
itself  felt,  and  his  work  for  the  left  portal  of  S.  Petronio  assumed 
a  more  classic  style.  A  Bolognese  sculptress,  Properzia  de' 
Rossi  (1490-1530),  under  the  influence  of  Alfonso  Lombardi 
and  of  Tribolo,  produced  at  S.  Petronio  and  elsewhere  a  number 
of  works  of  merit.  Niccolo  Pericoli,  known  as  II  Tribolo 
(1485-1550),  was  a  sculptor  of  high  order,  as  shown  by  the 
thoroughly  plastic  and  beautiful  prophets,  sibyls,  angels,  and 
other  reliefs  about  the  doorways  of  S.  Petronio.  His  subse- 
quent work  was  of  a  temporary,  decorative  character,  and  a 
series  of  misfortunes  prevented  him  reaching  the  position  to 
which  his  genius  entitled  him. 

In  Venice  the  most  distinguished  sculptor  was  the  Florentine 
Jacopo  Tatti,  better  know  from  his  master  as  Jacopo  Sansavino 
(1487-1570).  In  15 10  he  followed  Andrea  Sansavino  to  Rome, 
and  there  through  copying  and  repairing  ancient  statues  became 
infused  with  the  classic  spirit.  His  Bacchus  holding  above 
his  head  a  Bowl  of  Wine,  in  the  Museo  Nazionale,  Florence,  is 
a  fine  example  of  his  work  at  this  period.  After  1527  he 
went  to  Venice,  and  there  undertook  important  works  both  in 
architecture  and  sculpture.  He  tried  to  secure  the  rich  deco- 
rative effects  demanded  by  the  Venetians.  In  his  treatment 
of  ornamental  detail,  and  in  the  statues  of  Apollo,  Mercury, 
Minerva,  and  Peace  for  the  Loggietta  near  the  Campanile  of 
S.  Marco,  he  showed  himself  a  worthy  successor  of  Pietro 
Ix>mbardo  and  Leopardi.  These  works  were  like  an  echo  of 
Praxiteles.  Very  different,  however,  were  his  reliefs.  His 
celebrated  bronze  door  in  the  choir  of  S.  Marco  and  his 
marble  relief  for  the  Chapel  of  S.  Antonio  at  Padua  were 
forerunners  of  the  period  of  the  decline.  Sansavino's  pupils 
were  many.  Tommaso  Lombardo,  Girolamo  Lombardo,  Danese 
Cattaneo,  and  Alessandro  Vittoria  (1525-1608)  assisted  him  in 
the  plastic  decorations  of  the  Biblioteca.  Girolamo  Campagna, 
a  pupil  of  Cattaneo,  continued  to  work  in  good  taste;  but 
14 


2IO  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 

Alessandro  Vittoria  represented  the  exaggerated  style  of  the 
coming  Rococo  period. 

THE  ROMAN  SCULPTORS.  In  the  Early  Renaissance,  Florence 
supplied  Rome  with  artists,  and  there  was  no  distinctive  Roman 
school.  In  the  Developed  Renaissance,  Rome,  chiefly  through 
Michelangelo,  influenced  the  development  of  sculpture 
throughout  all  Italy.  Michelangelo  Buonarroti  (1475-1564), 
equally  famous  as  architect,  sculptor,  and  painter,  was  essen- 
tially a  sculptor  in  all  his  work.  Though  a  Tuscan  by  birth, 
and  in  his  early  work  not  uninfluenced  by  Donatello  and 
Jacopo  della  Quercia,  his  spirit  gave  to  sculpture  a  more  inde- 
pendent position  than  it  had  enjoyed  since  the  days  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.  From  Ghirlandaio,  in  whose  studio  he 
is  said  to  have  worked,  he  received  no  deep  educational 
impress.  From  the  very  start,  architectural  and  landscape 
backgrounds,  perspective  effects  and  elaborated  compositions, 
did  not  enter  into  his  conceptions.  His  interest  centred  in 
the  human  form. 

His  first  manner  (1488-1496)  may  be  compared  to  that  of 
Donatello,  but  it  was  larger,  freer,  and  more  classic.  He 
characterized  to  perfection  the  face  of  a  Faun,  and  portrayed 
the  Madonna  and  Child,  with  little  boys  at  the  head  of  some 
steps,  with  all  the  dignity  and  humanity  that  are  found  in 
Greek  reliefs.  He  revelled  in  the  study  of  the  nude  human 
form  in  his  relief  known  as  the  Battle  of  the  Centaurs.  His 
admiration  of  Donatello  may  be  seen  in  the  S.  Giovannino  of 
the  Berlin  Museum,  with  its  slender  form,  large  hands,  and 
expressive  head.  Even  in  these  early  works  he  appeared  as  a 
master  rather  than  a  pupil.  As  he  himself  remarked,  he 
imbibed  the  use  of  the  chisel  with  his  mother's  milk. 

His  second  manner  (1496-1500)  exhibited  still  further 
independence  and  study  of  the  human  form.  In  spite  of  the 
heavy  treatment  of  the  drapery,  how  pathetic  and  full  of 
significance  is  the  Madonna  and  how  wonderful  the  modelling 
of  the  Christ  in  the  Pieta  at  St.  Peter's  !  His  Madonna  and 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE   IN   ITALY. 


211 


Child  in  the  church  of  Notre  Dame  at  Bruges  and  his  Medal- 
lions in  the  Museo  Nazionale,  Florence,  and  the  Royal  Acad 


r 


H(:.    77. — HEAI>   OF   STATUE   OK    1JAVIU    (llV    MICHRLANGKLO).        MUSKO    NAZIONAI.K, 
FLORENCE. 

emy,  Ix>ndon.,  showed  a.  majestic  treatment  of  a  universal 
subject.  His  delight  in  arriving  at  new  poses,  as  in  his  paint- 
ings in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  was  exhibited  in  sculpture  in  the 


212  HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 

Cupid,  now  at  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  His  attention 
was  not  always  occupied  with  the  body  only ;  the  impression 
produced  by  his  David  comes  chiefly  from  the  powerful  head, 
which  seems  to  say  to  us  that  intellect  is  superior  to  the  force 
of  giants. 

His  final  manner  (1500-1564),  as  illustrated  by  the  Moses  and 
by  the  figures  upon  the  Medici  tombs,  revealed  greater  harmony 
of  treatment.  Modelling,  pose,  drapery,  expressiveness,  are 
more  equally  balanced,  and  contribute  to  the  effectiveness  of 
the  whole.  The  Moses  is  the  chief  surviving  member  of  a 
magnificent  tomb  which  was  to  have  been  placed  in  St.  Peter's 
in  honor  of  Pope  Julius  II.  The  original  design  was  a  free- 
standing structure  embracing  as  many  as  forty  statues.  Below 
were  to  be  figures  of  Victories  and  Slaves ;  above  them,  four 
seated  statues,  one  of  which  was  to  have  been  the  Moses ;  in 
the  centre  was  the  sarcophagus  of  the  Pope,  represented  as 
kneeling  between  angels ;  above  all,  a  figure  of  the  Madonna. 
Through  forty  years  (1505-1545)  this  tomb  occupied  Michel- 
angelo's thoughts,  but  circumstances  prevented  its  completion. 
The  monument  as  it  stands  in  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli  is  a  mere 
fragment  of  the  original  design,  only  the  Moses  being  attrib- 
utable to  his  hand.  Two  fine  figures  of  Slaves  in  the  Louvre 
were  probably  executed  for  the  Julius  monument ;  possibly, 
also,  a  Victory  in  the  Museum  at  Florence. 

The  tombs  for  the  Medici  family  in  S.  Lorenzo  in  Florence 
(1524-1534)  are  also  only  a  partial  realization  of  the  original 
design.  Those  of  Cosimo  and  Lorenzo  il  Magnifico  were 
never  executed;  even  those  of  Lorenzo,  Duke  of  Urbino,  and 
Giuliano,  Duke  of  Nemours,  were  not  entirely  finished.  The 
Lorenzo,  known  as  "  II  Penseroso,"  from  his  pensive  attitude, 
is  a  majestic,  superb  figure,  and  the  Giuliano  hardly  less 
expressive.  Day  and  Night,  Twilight  and  Dawn,  reclining  on 
the  curved  tops  of  the  sarcophagi,  magnificent  figures,  might 
appear  out  of  place,  were  it  not  that  they  form  a  portion  of 
the  composition  with  the  statues  seated  above.  The  walls 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE   IN   ITALY.  213 

were  provided  with  niches,  as  a  framework  for  the  statues. 
Among  the  latest  works  of  Michelangelo  were  his  Madonna 
and  Child  in  this  chapel,  the  unfinished  Deposition  in  the 


FIG.    78. — TOMB   OF    LORENZO    DE*    MEDICI.      MEDICI    CHAPEL,    S.    LORENZO,    FLORENCE. 

Cathedral  of  Florence,  and  the  bust  of  Brutus  in  the  Museo 
Nazionale. 

Baccio  Bandinelli  (1487-1559)  aimed  to  be  more  Michelan- 
gelesque  than  Michelangelo  himself.      His  first  statue,  a  St. 


214  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 

Jerome,  is  said  to  have  been  commended  by  Leonardo  da 
Vinci,  and  his  second,  a  Mercury,  sold  to  Francis  I.  How 
inferior  he  was  to  the  great  master  may  be  seen  by  his  Hercu- 
les and  Cacus  in  front  of  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  statues  much 
ridiculed  by  his  contemporaries.  Bartolommeo  Ammanati 
(1511-1592)  studied  under  Bandinelli  and  worked  under 
Jacopo  Sansavino.  He  was  engaged  upon  important  works  at 
Urbino,  Padua,  Rome,  and  Florence.  His  best  work,  the 
Neptune  of  the  fountain  in  the  Piazza  della  Signoria,  is  a  life- 
less production.  Benvenuto  Cellini  called  it  "  an  example  of 
the  fate  which  attends  him  who,  trying  to  escape  from  one 
evil,  falls  into  another  ten  times  worse,  since  in  trying  to 
escape  from  Bandinelli  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  Ammanati." 

Raffaello  da  Montelupo  (1505-1566)  learned  the  art  of  sculp- 
ture in  his  father's  studio,  assisted  Andrea  Sansavino  at  Loreto, 
and  Michelangelo  in  the  Medici  Chapel.  His  work  is  said 
to  have  disappointed  Michelangelo  ;  but  two  altar-pieces  at 
Orvieto  designed  by  II  Moscha  and  executed  by  Raffaello  and 
II  Moschino  bear  witness  to  his  skill  in  handling  the  chisel. 
Fra  Giovan'  Angelo  Montorsoli  (1507-1563)  was  more  thor- 
oughly a  follower  of  Michelangelo,  and  carried  his  style  to 
Genoa,  Bologna,  and  to  Sicily.  Other  sculptors  of  the  same 
school,  who  by  exaggerating  the  manner  of  Michelangelo 
contributed  to  the  downfall  of  sculpture,  were  Guglielmo  and 
Giacomo  della  Porta  (d.  1577)  and  Prospero  Clement!  (d. 

1584). 

THE  SCULPTORS  IN  BRONZE.  As  Michelangelo  developed 
freedom  and  modelling  in  marble,  a  similar  advance  was  made 
in  bronze  and  the  art  of  the  goldsmith  by  Benvenuto  Cellini 
and  Giovanni  da  Bologna.  Benvenuto  Cellini  (1500-1572) 
infused  into  his  sculpture  something  of  his  own  emotional, 
irascible  temper.  In  his  minor  works,  such  as  cope  buttons 
and  bells  and  candelabra,  pitchers  and  salvers,  he  pushed  the 
decorative  work  of  the  goldsmith  and  miniature  sculptor  to 
its  furthest 'limits.  He  was  an  important  medium  of  transfer- 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE   IN   ITALY. 


215 


ring  the  influence  of  Italian  sculpture  to  France,  being  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  school  at  Fontainebleau,  where  he  contin- 
ued the  production  of 
smaller  objects,  his 
chef-d'oeuvre  being  a 
salt-cellar,  now  in 
Vienna,  made  for 
Fran£ois  I.  The  only 
large  work  made  by 
him  in  France,  a  re- 
clining nymph,  placed 
over  the  principal  door 
of  the  palace  of  Fon- 
tainebleau,  had  a 
marked  influence  upon 
the  style  of  French 
sculptors,  especially 
upon  Jean  Goujon.  On 
his  return  to  Florence 
in  1545  he  made  the 
Perseus  for  the  Loggia 
dei  Lanzi.  Though  a 
marvel  of  technical  ex- 
cellence, it  was  con- 
ceived too  much  in  the 
spirit  of  the  miniatu- 
rist to  be  above  criti- 
cism as  monumental 
sculpture.  In  the 
bronze  bust  of  Bindo 
Altoviti  he  was  more 
successful,  though  even 
here  he  shows  as  much 
of  the  virtuoso  as  of  the  true  artistic  spirit.  Cellini  left  valu- 
able records  of  his  time  in  his  treatise  on  the  goldsmith  art 


7Q.  —  BASE  OF  STATUE  OF  PP.KSBl'S  (BY  BEN- 
VENUTO  CELLINI).  LOGGIA  UKI  LANZI,  FLOR- 
ENCE. 


2l6  HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 

and  in  his  autobiography.  Bronze-workers  and  medallists  of 
inferior  quality  now  appeared  in  every  quarter  of  Italy,  of 
whom  the  most  noteworthy  were  the  Paduans  Leone  Leoni 
(1509-1590)  and  his  son  Pompeo  Leoni  (d.  1610).  Giovanni 
da  Bologna  (1524-1608),  born  at  Douai  in  Flanders,  studied 
in  Rome,  and  became  a  sculptor  of  considerable  influence. 
His  works  had  usually  a  predominantly  decorative  aim,  being 
designed  for  open  piazzas,  gardens,  and  palaces.  Classic  sub- 
jects, such  as  Neptune,  The  Flying  Mercury,  The  Rape  of  the 
Sabines,  Hercules  and  Nessus,  were  his  themes.  These  he 
treated  with  considerable  freedom  and  grace,  and  without 
exaggeration.  His  reliefs  were  inferior  to  his  works  in  the 
round.  The  influence  he  exerted  retarded  the  decline  of 
sculpture  in  Italy. 

THE  DECADENCE.  After  Michelangelo,  sculpture  as  an  art 
reigned  supreme  in  Italy.  Throughout  the  seventeenth  and 
greater  part  of  the  eighteenth  centuries  architecture  followed 
plastic  rather  than  structural  ideals.  Spiral  columns,  broken 
cornices,  curved  walls,  were  some  of  the  evidences  that 
architecture  gave  of  its  submission.  Painting  also  ceased  to 
occupy  its  former  position.  Wall-painting  was  relegated  to 
the  decoration  of  apses  and  domes,  and  frequently  furnished 
backgrounds  for  sculptured  groups.  Sculpture  ran  riot,  exult- 
ing in  its  technical  accomplishment  and  pushing  plastic  modes 
of  representation  to  the  furthest  possible  extreme.  The 
churches  were  filled  with  restless  baldachinos,  violent  altar- 
pieces,  and  emotional  wall  tombs.  The  open  piazzas  in  the 
cities  were  provided  with  effective  fountains,  porticoes  were 
lined  with  statues,  even  the  rocks  of  the  gardens  were  cut  into 
living  forms. 

The  keynote  of  the  sculpture  of  this  period  was  its  emotional, 
almost  hysterical  character.  Naturalness  and  beauty  were  not 
its  ideals.  Movement,  activity,  and  dramatic  energy  were 
emphasized  at  all  hazards.  This  characterized  the  details  as 
well  as  the  general  spirit.  Drapery  was  no  longer  a  help  to 


RENAISSANCE    SCULPTURE    IN    ITALY. 


form;  it  was  a  field  for  the  sculptor's  display  of  skill  in  dis- 
tinguishing stuffs  or  in  increasing  dramatic  effect.  In  the 
selection  of  materials,  richly  colored  marbles  were  employed 
in  preference  to  white  marble  or  bronze,  and  different  materials 
were  often  combined 
in  the  same  work. 

The  dramatic 
period  of  sculpture  is 
always  posterior  to 
the  classic.  It  is  not 
necessarily  unplastic, 
or  antagonistic  to  the 
principles  of  monu- 
mental art.  There 
are  subjects  in  which 
passionate  action  is 
called  for,  and  ma- 
terials and  technical 
methods  which  can  be 
appropriately  utilized 
for  such  purposes. 
It  was  the  radical 
application  of  the 
dramatic  spirit  to  all 
themes  and  in  all 
materials  which 
brought  this  period 
of  sculpture  into 
contempt. 

Seldom  has  a  sculp- 
tor enjoyed  a  more  complete  sway  over  his  contemporaries 
than  did  Bernini  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Lorenzo  Bernini 
(1598-1680),  the  son  of  a  Tuscan  sculptor,  was  born  in  Na- 
ples, but  came  when  a  child  to  Rome.  In  his  early  works, 
the  Apollo  and  Daphne,  the  David,  and  the  Rape  of  Pros- 


FIG.    80. — THE    PROPHET   DANIEL    (BY    BERNINl). 
S.    MARIA    DEL    POPOLO,    ROME. 


2l8  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

erpine,  he  showed  the  influence  of  late  Roman  sculpture. 
Even  in  his  S.  Bibiana  the  classic  spirit  was  still  evident. 
"  But,"  he  remarked,  as  he  looked  back  upon  it  in  his  old 
age,  "  had  I  always  worked  in  this  style,  I  should  have  been 
a  beggar."  By  ministering  to  the  depraved  taste  of  his 
time,  he  received  large  sums  of  money  for  less  worthy  works. 
His  baldachino  with  spiral  columns  in  St.  Peter's  was  the 
model  for  similar  structures  all  over  Europe.  His  sculptured 
angels  upon  marble  clouds  over  the  cathedral  throne  were 
repeated  for  more  than  a  century,  and  his  dramatic  tombs  of 
Urban  VIII.  and  Alexander  VII.  set  the  fashion  for  many  a 
monument  of  similar  style  and  inferior  quality. 

Bernini  had  many  followers :  in  Naples,  Sammartino,  Cor- 
radini,  and  Queirolo ;  in  Rome,  Alessandro  Algardi  and 
Stefano  Maderna;  in  Florence,  Giovanni  Battista  Foggini; 
and  in  Venice,  Pietro  Baratta.  These  men  were  extremely 
skilful  technicians ;  but  they  were  inferior  artists,  since  they 
had  lost  the  capacity  for  great  ideas  and  failed  to  recognize 
the  natural  limitations  of  their  art.  It  is  not  strange  that  a 
classical  reaction  followed  this  period  of  mad  extravagance. 

EXTANT  MONUMENTS.  Italian  monuments  of  the  Developed  Renais- 
sance are  to  be  sought  for  chiefly  in  the  churches  and  museums  of  Italy. 
Not  a  few  are  in  Spain,  and  some  have  found  their  way  to  the  museums 
of  Northern  Europe.  There  is  hardly  a  church  in  Italy  that  does  not  con- 
tain some  monument  of  the  Decadence. 

NOTE.  Michelangelo  studies  have  progressed  in  recent  years.  Marcel 
Reymond  has  shown  (Gaz.  B.  A.,  1908,  17-34)  that  the  Medici  Tombs  are 
in  their  present  state  a  mere  torso  of  the  original  design,  and  Steinmann  in 
his  Geheimniss  der  Medicigraeber  Michelangelos  has  given  an  entirely  new 
interpretation  of  their  significance.  Bernini  is  the  subject  of  an  important 
volume  by  Fraschetti. 


CHAPTER   XXII. 
RENAISSANCE  SCULPTURE  IN    FRANCE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.    Baudot,  La  Sculpture  Frangaise  au 

Moyen-dge  et  a  la  Renaissance.  Brownell,  French  Art.  Clare- 
tie,  Peintres  et  Sculpteurs  Contemporains.  Dierks,  Houdon's 
Leben  und  Werke.  Emeric-David,  Histoire  de  la  Sculpture 
Fran$aise.  Gazette  des  Beaux-Arts.  Gonse,  La  Sculpture 
Fran^aise  depuis  le  XIV  Siecle.  Jouin,  Antoine  Coysevox. 
Le  Monnier,  L Art  Fran$ais  au  Temps  de  Richelieu.  Mon- 
taiglon,  La  Famille  des  Juste  en  France  ;  "  Jean  Goujon,"  in 
Gaz.  d.  Beaux-Arts,  1884-1885.  Montaiglon  et  Duplessis, 
"  Houdon,"  in  Rev.  Univ.  des  Arts,  Vols.  I. -II.  Palustre,  La 
Renaissance  en  France.  Pattison,  The  Renaissance  of  Art  in 
France.  Thirion,  Clodion. 

THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  Outside  of  Italy  the  Renais- 
sance has  an  external  and  a  rather  superficial  significance.  In 
no  northern  country  was  it  so  much  a  rebirth  of  the  national 
spirit  as  a  union  of  the  Italian  with  the  national  style.  The 
magnificent  development  of  Romanesque  and  Gothic  archi- 
tecture, the  glory  of  mediaeval  France,  was  attended  by  a 
sculptural  development  of  hardly  inferior  quality.  By  the 
fifteenth  century,  however,  the  Gothic  impulse  had  expended 
itself  in  over-elaboration,  and  a  fallow  period  ensued,  which 
could  be  quickened  only  by  a  return  to  simplicity  or  by  the 
introduction  of  a  new  style.  The  latter  was  almost  a  neces- 
sary consequence  of  the  growth  of  French  power  over  Italy. 
The  French  feudal  castle  became  now  transformed  into  the 
chateau  de plaisir,  and  Italian  ideals  in  sculpture  replaced  the 
Gothic.  This  was  accomplished  by  the  actual  importation 
of  sculptors,  chiefly  from  the  north  of  Italy,  who  settled  at 


22O 


HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 


Tours,  at  Paris,  and  at  Fontainebleau.  It  is  hardly  necessary 
to  note  the  presence  in  France  of  Guido  Mazzoni,  Girolamo 
da  Fiesole,  the  Juste  family,  Girolamo  della  Robbia,  Bene- 
detto da  Rovezzano,  and  of  Benvenuto  Cellini — so  many  were 
the  Italian  artists  settled  in  France  and  so  thoroughly  did  the 
French  cultivate  Italian  methods. 

THE  SCHOOL  OF  TOURS.  Though  Italian  monuments  w-re 
made  for  France  early  in  the  fifteenth  century,  the  first  school 
of  sculpture  to  exhibit  the  new  influence  strongly  was  that  of 


FIG.    8l. — ST.    GEOKGK    AND   THE    DRAGON    (BY   MICHEL   COLOMBE).       LOUVRE,    PARIS. 

Tours.  The  chief  representative  of  this  school,  Michel  Co- 
lombe  (1432-1515?),  maybe  compared  with  the  best  Italian 
sculptors  of  the  Early  Renaissance.  His  relief  of  St.  George 
and  the  Dragon,  made  in  1508  for  the  high  altar  of  the  Chateau 
de  Gaillon,  does  not  suffer  when  brought  into  comparison  with 
Donatello's  treatment  of  the  same  subject  at  Or  San  Michele  ; 
and  his  tomb  statue  of  Roberte  Legendre,  wife  of  Louis 
Poncher,  which  has  found  a  place  in  the  Louvre,  may  be  classed 
with  the  beautiful  statue  of  Ilaria  in  the  cathedral  at  Lucca. 
But  we  may  observe  that  the  decorative  framework  that  sur- 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE   IN   FRANCE.  221 

rounds  the  St.  George  relief  is  Italian  workmanship  and  that 
Italian  artists  were  seldom  absent  when  any  monumental  work 
in  sculpture  was  in  process  of  construction. 

Perr6al,  who  with  Michel  Colombe  was  a  director  of  art 
under  Charles  VIII.  and  Louis  XII.,  was  also  strongly  influenced 
by  Italian  methods.  The  tomb  of  Francois  II.  of  Brittany  and 
Margaret  de  Foix,  which  he  and  Michel  Colombe  designed 
together,  is  a  transitional  monument,  in  which  the  principal 
figures  are  French,  but  the  decorative  base  thoroughly  Italian. 
Antoine  Juste  (1479-1519)  and  his  brother  Jean  Juste  (1485- 
1534)  were  by  birth  Italians,  sons  of  a  Florentine  sculptor. 
Antoine  appears  to  have  been  the  designer  and  Jean  the  prac- 
tical sculptor.  The  tomb  of  the  Bishop  of  Dol,  executed  when 
Jean  Juste  was  but  twenty  years  of  age,  is  altogether  Italian. 
But  the  influence  and  traditions  of  Michel  Colombe  are  visible 
in  the  tomb  of  Louis  XII.  and  Anne  of  Brittany  at  St.  Denis, 
and  more  strongly  still  in  the  tombs  of  Artus  Gouffier  and 
Philippe  de  Montmorency  in  the  chapel  at  Oiron. 

The  most  elaborate  monument  in  the  style  of  this  period  is 
the  tomb  of  the  Cardinals  of  Amboise  in  the  cathedral  at 
Rouen.  Though  designed  by  Roland  Leroux  and  executed  with 
the  assistance  of  French  and  Flemish  sculptors,  the  Italian 
character  of  the  work  is  so  strong  that  we  might  naturally  look 
tc  Milan  or  Pavia  for  its  inspiration.  Only  the  kneeling  statue 
ot  George  I.  preserves  the  traditions  of  earlier  French  sculp- 
ture. 

THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.  During  the  first  half  of  the 
sixteenth  century  the  Franco- 1  tali  an  style  spread  rapidly  under 
the  vigorous  patronage  of  Franfois  I.  The  great  chateaux,  such 
as  Blois,  Chambord,  Fontainebleau,  St.  Germain,  Madrid, 
were  transformed  or  erected  in  accordance  with  the  new  style. 
These  buildings  called  for  sculptural  decoration  after  the 
Florentine  manner  of  the  Karly  Renaissance.  Public  buildings 
and  private  houses  followed  at  such  centres  as  Tours,  Angers, 
Orleans,  Rouen,  Rheims,  and  Toulouse  ;  then  the  churches,  with 


222  HISTORY  OF   SCULPTURE. 

their  sculptured  doorways,  altar-pieces,  choir  screens,  and 
stalls.  In  the  cloisters  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours,  Bastien  Fran- 
^ois  continued  the  traditions  of  his  uncle  Michel  Colombe;  in 
the  choir  screen  at  Chartres,  Jean  Texier  rivalled  in  delicacy 
of  design  and  carving  the  most  refined  of  Florentine  decora- 
tion. Hardly  inferior  to  this  were  the  wooden  doors,  finely 
carved  by  Jean  le  Pot  for  Beauvais  Cathedral,  and  the  choir 
stalls  of  the  same  period  at  the  Cathedral  of  Auch.  South  of 
Paris  the  Italian  style  prevailed  over  the  French,  as,  for  exam- 
ple, in  the  sculptures  of  La  Dalbade  at  Toulouse  ;  in  the  north, 
Franco-Flemish  influences  remained  stronger,  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  pictorial  historic  reliefs  of  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of 
Gold  at  the  Hotel  du  Bourgtheroulde  at  Rouen. 

During  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  influence 
of  Catherine  de'  Medici  over  the  last  of  the  house  of  Valois 
signified  a  strengthening  of  Italian  influence  over  French  art. 
In  architecture  the  Gothic  style  ceased  to  determine  struc- 
tural forms,  and  sculpture  assumed  greater  independence. 
The  three  great  architects  of  this  period,  Bullant,  Lescot, 
and  Delorme,  constantly  applied  for  assistance  to  the  three 
great  sculptors,  Bontemps,  Jean  Goujon,  and  Germain  Pilon. 

Pierre  Bontemps  (fl.  1552)  retained  more  than  the  others 
the  Franco- Flemish  spirit.  Nothing  could  be  more  Italian 
in  style  than  the  triumphal  arch  designed  by  Delorme  as 
the  tomb  of  Francois  I.  at  St.  Denis.  But  Bontemps,  the 
author  of  the  sculptured  reliefs  at  its  base,  represents,  in 
accordance  with  French  traditions,  the  conquest  of  the  French 
in  Italy.  The  funerary  urn  for  the  heart  of  Francois  I.  is  also 
more  Flemish  than  Italian  in  decorative  detail. 

Jean  Goujon  (1520-1566?)  maybe  considered  the  typical 
sculptor  of  the  developed  Renaissance  in  France.  His  style 
represents  the  best  of  Flemish  pictorial  naturalism  transformed 
by  Italian  grace  and  beauty.  If  he  is  somewhat  severe  and 
Flemish  in.  his  early  work  for  the  two  principal  doors  of  St. 
Maclou  at  Rouen  (1540-1541),  he  is  already  a  great  sculptor, 


RENAISSANCE  SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE. 


223 


if  we  may  attribute  to  him  the  sepulchral  statue  of  Ixniis 
de  Bre"ze.  Already  in  1541  his  reliefs  for  Lescot's  choir  screen 
in  St.  Germain  1'Auxerrois  show  the  prevailing  Italian  spirit. 
Harmony  and  elegance  rapidly  replaced  his  former  austerity, 
as  we  may  see  in  the  grand  chimney-piece,  now  at  Chantilly, 


FIG.    82. — WATER   NYMPHS   (BY   GOUJON).       LOUVRE,    PARIS. 

which  he  made  for  the  Chateau  d'£couen.  In  1547  he  deco- 
rated for  Lescot  the  loggia  which  was  ordered  to  grace  the 
entiance  of  Henri  II.  into  Paris.  In  the  eighteenth  century 
this  was  transformed  into  the  Fountain  of  the  Innocents. 
Goujon's  reliefs  representing  fountain  nymphs  were  treated 
with  a  grace  peculiarly  his  own,  and  adapted  most  cleverly  t<? 


224  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

the  narrow  spaces  they  occupied.  It  may  have  been  also  an 
Italian  inspiration,  perhaps  from  Benvenuto  Cellini's  relief 
at  Fontainebleau,  that  led  Goujon  to  produce  the  celebrated 
Diana  of  the  Louvre,  which  he  made  to  adorn  a  fountain  at 
the  Chateau  d'Anet.  But  sve  cannot  fail  to  see  in  this  also  a 
grace  which  is  specifically  French.  In  his  work  for  the  deco- 
ration of  the  Louvre,  from  the  Pavilion  de  1'Horloge  to  the 
Porte  Goujon,  and  upon  the  staircase  of  Henri  II.,  his  fertile 
fancy  found  free  play.  But  he  just  missed  perfection  in  the 
Caryatids  for  the  hall  now  called  by  that  name  in  the  Louvre. 
His  sympathy  with  the  Huguenots  seems  to  have  been  the 
cause  of  his  leaving  France  for  Italy,  where  he  died  (at  Mod- 
ena)  between  1564  and  1568. 

The  third  member  of  this  distinguished  trio  was  Germain 
Pilon  (d.  1590?).  In  his  earliest  work  for  the  tomb  of  Fran- 
£ois  I.  he  adhered  to  the  manner  of  Bontemps,  and  in  his  four 
figures  for  the  tomb  of  Henri  II.  at  St.  Denis  he  was  com- 
paratively free  from  the  Italian  manner.  But  the  new  style 
appeared  in  full  bloom  in  his  Three  Graces  made  to  support 
the  urn  for  the  heart  of  Henri  II.  and  in  a  bust  of  an  infant 
in  the  Ixauvre.  Pilon's  best  pupil  was  Barth6lemy  Prieur  (d. 
161 1),  who  was  associated  with  the  distinguished  architect  Bul- 
lant  in  several  important  works.  Italian  influence  upon  French 
sculpture  was  strengthened  by  the  sojourn  in  Italy  of  such 
sculptors  as  Berthelot,  Guillain,  Sarrazin,  Vouet,  Mellan,  and 
the  Anguiers. 

OTHER  SCHOOLS.  The  school  of  Troyes,  represented  by 
Francois  Gentil,  the  school  of  Toulouse,  represented  by  Nicho- 
las Bachelier,  and  the  sculptors  of  Lorraine  show,  with  slight 
variations;  the  general  tendency.  In  Ix>rraine  special  mention 
may  be  made  of  Ligier  Richier  (1500-1567),  whose  Holy 
Sepulchres  at  Hattonchatel  and  at  Saint-Mihiel  form  an  inter- 
esting parallel  to  the  works  of  Mazzoni  and  Begarelli.  As  a 
sculptor  of  sorrow  and  of  death,  he  represented  the  expiring 
spirit  of  the  Middle  Ages. 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE   IN   FRANCE. 


225 


THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.  This  was  for  France  a  century 
of  self-assertion  and  of  superficial  grandeur.  It  was  epito- 
mized in  the  character  of  Louis  XIV.  In  architecture  the 
"  ordre  colossal  "  was  introduced  ;  in  painting,  huge  bombastic 
canvases,  and  in  sculpture,  pompous  monuments  were  popular. 
The  leading  French  sculptors  were  Girardon,  Coysevox,  and 
Puget.  Their  works  showed  an  increasing  tendency  toward  the 
display  of  emotion  at 
the  expense  of  classic 
form  and  repose. 

Francois  Girardon 
(1628-1715)  of  the 
three  was  the  most 
restful.  His  relief  of 
the  Nymphs  at  the 
Bath,  at  Versailles, 
exhibited  an  interest- 
ing combination  of 
classic  and  French 
grace,  but  his  Rape 
of  Proserpine  already 
followed  in  the  line 
of  Bernini,  and  his 
tomb  of  Cardinal 
Richelieu  at  the  Sor- 
bonne  inaugurated  the 
series  of  pompous 
tombs  of  the  age  of 
Ix)uis  XIV.  and  XV.  He  was  the  chief  of  a  group  of  sculptors 
whose  works  may  be  best  studied  at  Versailles.  Among 
these  was  Robert  le  Lorrain  (1666-1743),  whose  chef-d'oeuvre 
is  the  relief  upon  the  Ancien  Hotel  de  Rohan,  representing 
the  Horses  of  the  Sun. 

Antoine  Coysevox  (1640-1720)  was  an  original,  varied,  and 
productive  sculptor,  more  thoroughly  French  than  Girardon. 


FIG.  83. — MOURNING  FIGURE  FROM  THE  TOMB  OF 
CARDINAL  MAZARIN  (BY  COYSEVOX).  LOUVRE, 
PARIS. 


226 


HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 


His  ornamental  sculptures  at  Versailles  showed  the  magnifi- 
cence of  the  decoration  in  demand  at  this  period.  As  a  por- 
trait sculptor  his  statues  and  busts,  such  as  those  of  Louis 
XIV.  and  the  Prince  de  Conde,  of  Bossuet,  and  Le  Brun,  were 
distinguished,  life-like,  and  carefully  executed.  Toward  the 
end  of  his  career  he  made  a  dozen  or  more  monumental  tombs. 
Of  his  many  pupils  the  best  were  Nicholas  and  Guillaume 
Coustou,  whose  graceful  works  mark  the  new  spirit  of  the 
eighteenth  century. 


MG.  84.— HORSES  OF'THB  SUN.     HOTEL  DE  ROHAN,  PARIS. 

Pierre  Puget  (1622-1694),  born  at  Marseilles,  brought  into 
French  sculpture  the  heat  of  southern  emotion.  His  Caryatids 
at  the  Hotel  de  Ville  at  Toulon  were  exaggerations  of  the 
spirit  of  Michelangelo.  His  inspiration  was  drawn  more 
from  Bernini  and  Algardi  in  his  Milon  of  Croton  and  his  relief 
of  Alexander  and  Diogenes.  His  works  were  marvels  of  tech- 
nical ability,  and  full  of  fire,  but  not  free  from  exaggeration. 

THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTUEY.  The  pompous  and  grand  art  of 
Louis  XIV.  was  followed  by  an  art  of  graceful  form  and  deli- 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE   IN   FRANCE. 


227 


cate  sentiment.  During  the  reigns  of  Louis  XV.  and  XVI., 
sculpture  of  this  character  appealed  strongly  to  a  large  class. 
The  eighteenth  century  presents,  therefore,  a  long  list  of  skilful 


FIG.    85. — THE    MARKCIIM.    1)K    SAXE    (BY    I'IGAI.I.B).       LOUVRE.    PARIS. 

sculptors  in  France.  The  line  began  with  Jean  Baptiste 
Lemoyne,  who  was  a  pupil  of  Robert  le  Lorrain,  the  pupil  of 
Girardon.  His  principal  works  were  destroyed  during  the 
Revolution,  but  his  style  may  be  measured  by  a  number  of 


228 


HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 


excellent  busts  which  still  survive.  He  counted  among  his 
pupils  Pigalle,  Caffieri,  Pajou,  Falconet,  and  others  of  less 
renown. 

Michel  Slodtz  (1705-1764),  the  author  of  the  S.  Bruno  at 

St.  1'eter's,  Rome, 
is  linked  with  the 
preceding  century 
through  his  father, 
Sebastian  Slodtz,  who 
was  a  pupil  of  Girar- 
don.  Michel  Slodtz 
was  one  of  the  masters 
of  Houdon.  Edme 
Bouchardon  (1698- 
1762)  was  called  by 
Voltaire  the  .French 
Pheidias;  but  his 
graceful  Cupid  bend- 
ing the  Bow,  in  the 
Louvre,  and  the 
charming  reliefs  of 
the  fountain  in  the 
Rue  de  Grenelle- 
Saint-Germain  show  a 
spirit  more  closely  re- 
lated to  that  of  Prax- 


iteles.     Jean  Baptiste 
_J      Pigalle  (1714-1785), 


I.OUVKE,    PARIS. 


(BY  HOUDON).  a  more  brilliant  sculp- 

tor, infused  a  living 
quality  into  graceful  forms.  His  Mercury  attaching  wings  to 
.his  feet  is  full  of  life  as  well  as  beauty.  His  monumental 
tombs  were  finer  in  detail  than  in  general  composition.  Ga- 
briel Christophe  Allegrain  (1710-1795)  was  much  admired  by 
Diderot  for  his  classic  form,  as  was  also  Maurice  Etienne  Fal- 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE   IN   FRANCE.  229 

conet  (1716-1781),  who  manifested  a  philosophic  fondness  for 
abstract  subjects,  such  as  Melancholy,  Friendship,  Music.  Jean 
Jacques  Caffi6ri,  the  best  of  a  family  of  artists,  whose  ancestors 
came  from  Italy,  was  noted  for  his  refined  and  graceful  busts, 
seven  of  which  are  in  the  Museum  of  the  Comedie  Francaise. 
Augustin  Pajou  (1730-1809)  was  a  sculptor  of  exquisite  grace 
and  delicate  sentiment.  His  aristocratic  bust  of  Madame  Du 
Barry  and  his  statue  of  Psyche  remind  one  of  his  contemporary, 
the  painter  Boucher.  Louis  Michel  Claude  (1738-1814),  called 
"  Clodion,"  spread  the  taste  for  the  lighter  phases  of  sculpture 
by  an  extensive  production,  chiefly  in  terracotta,  of  minor  works 
of  household  art. 

The  sum  of  all  that  is  best  in  French  sculpture  of  the 
eighteenth  century  is  to  be  found  in  the  work  of  Houdon.  Jean 
Antoine  Houdon  (1741-1828),  the  pupil  of  Lemoyne,  Michel 
Slodtz,  and  Pigalle,  applied  his  energy  in  the  direction  of 
naturalism.  "  It  should  be  our  aim,"  he  declared,  "  to  pre- 
serve and  render  imperishable  the  true  form  and  image  of  the 
men  who  have  brought  honor  and  glory  to  their  country."  He 
urged  his  pupils:  "  Copiez,  copiez  toujours,  et  surtout  copies 
juste."  He  was  not  lacking  on  the  ideal  side,  as  his  light- 
stepping  Diana  of  the  Louvre  testifies,  but  his  strength  as  a 
sculptor  lay  in  portraiture.  His  seated  statues  of  Voltaire 
and  of  Rousseau,  and  his  busts,  such  as  those  of  Moliere  and 
Diderot  and  Buffon,  of  Franklin  and  Washington,  are  the 
works  by  which  his  genius  is  to  be  measured.  In  these  also 
he  showed  himself  not  only  thoroughly  French,  but  essentially 
modern. 

EXTANT  MONUMENTS.  Outside  of  t'nc  museums  of  tiie  Louvre,  Trocu- 
dero,  Cluny,  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  and  the  private  collections  of  Paris, 
French  Renaissance  sculpture  may  be  best  studied  in  Tours,  Rouen, 
Caen,  Dijon,  Toulouse,  and  in  the  more  important  of  the  French  chateaux. 

NOTE.  Individual  French  sculptors  are  beginning  to  receive  special 
attention.  Paul  Vitry's  Michel  Colombe  is  the  most  important  of  such 
treatises. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 
RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE 

IN   GERMANY,    THE   NETHERLANDS,    SPAIN,    AND    ENGLAND. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  Amil,  Espafia  Artistica  y  Monu- 
mental. Becker,  Leben  und  Werke  des  Bildhauer  T.  Riemen- 
schneider.  Bergau,  Der  Bildschnitzer  Vreit  Stoss  und  seine 
Werke.  Bode,  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Plastik.  Carderera  y 
Solano,  Iconografia  Espanola.  Forster,  Geschichte  der  deutscher 
Kunst ;  Die  deutsche  Kunst  in  Wort  und  Bild ;  Denkmdler 
deutscher  Kunst  in  Batikunst,  Bildnerei  und  Malerei.  Liibke, 
Geschichte  der  deutschen  Kunst ;  Peter  Vischer*  s  Werke.  Mid- 
dleton,  article  "Sculpture,"  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica. 
Scott,  British  School  of  Sculpture.  Waagen,  Kunstwerke  und 
Kiinstler  in  Deutschland.  Ysendyck,  Documents  classes  de 
I'Art  dans  les  Pays  Bas. 

GEBMANY:  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  The  Renaissance, 
as  a  classic  or  Italian  movement,  made  itself  felt  slowly  in 
Germany.  The  Germans  were  sluggish  in  their  appreciation 
of  formal  beauty.  They  emphasized  inward  significance,  sen- 
timent, and  reality,  and  at  first  regarded  beauty  of  form  as 
superficial.  As  a  naturalistic  movement,  however,  the 
fifteenth  century  signified  for  Germany,  as  it  did  for  Italy,  a 
return  to  nature  and  a  revival  of  sculpture.  The  South  Ger- 
man schools  at  Nuremberg,  Wtirzburg,  in  Swabia,  Bavaria,  and 
the  Tyrol,  received  something  of  an  impulse  from  Italy,  while 
the  schools  of  the  Middle  and  Lower  Rhine,  Saxony,  Prussia, 
and  the  northern  provinces  were  more  closely  connected  with 
the  art  of  the  Netherlands.  In  South  Germany  the  most 
influential  school  was  that  of  Nuremberg,  best  represented  by 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE.  23! 

Michael  Wohlgemuth,  Veit  Stoss,  Adam  Kraft,  and  Peter 
Vischer. 

Michael  Wohlgemuth  (1434-1519)  was  equally  distin- 
guished as  painter,  engraver,  and  sculptor.  Such  men  were 
as  rare  in  Germany  as  they  were  common  in  Italy.  His  Depo- 
sition in  the  Kreuzkapelle  at  Nuremberg  is  simple  in  compo- 
sition and  contains  figures  of  marked  individuality.  Veit 
Stoss  (1440-1533)  was  the  most  renowned  of  German  wood- 
carvers.  His  early  work  at  Krakau,  though  Gothic  in  treat- 
ment, was  nevertheless  characterized  by  formal  symmetry. 
His  later  work  at  Nuremberg  exhibited  a  more  developed, 
though  superficial  beauty.  The  work  By  which  he  is  best 
known  is  in  the  Ixjrenzkirche,  and  represents  an  Annunication 
set  in  a  carved  wreath  of  roses,  with  medallions  of  scenes 
from  the  life  of  the  Virgin. 

Adam  Kraft  (1450  P-isoy)  reached  distinction  as  a  stone- 
carver.  His  earliest  dated  works,  the  Seven  Stages  of  the 
Journey  to  Calvary  (1490),  placed  at  intervals  along  the  road 
to  the  Johannis  cemetery,  were  pathetic  and  realistic,  though 
crowded  in  composition  and  unequal  in  execution.  His  reliefs 
of  Christ  bearing  the  Cross,  the  Entombment,  and  the  Resur- 
rection in  the  Schreyer  sepulchral  monument  on  the  exterior 
of  the  Sebalduskirche  were  richer  and  more  picturesque. 
Greater  symmetry  and  beauty  characterized  his  relief  of  the 
City  Scales  over  the  gateway  of  the  Civic  Weighing  House. 
His  most  remarkable  work  is  the  magnificent  free  standing 
tabernacle  which  reaches  to  the  ceiling  of  the  Lorenzkirche, 
and  is  enriched  with  figured  sculpture. 

Peter  Vischer  (1460-1529)  was  the  foremost  of  the  German 
bronze-casters.  Early  works  of  his  are  to  be  found  in  Mag- 
deburg and  in  Breslau.  His  most  important  monument  is  the 
shrine  of  St.  Sebaldus  at  Nuremberg,  begun  in  1507  and  fin- 
ished in  1519.  In  the  sculptural  portions  of  this  shrine  we 
see,  for  the  first  time,  strong  Italian  influence  in  the  pose  and 
proportions  of  the  figures,  in  the  drapery,  in  the  emphasis  put 


232 


HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 


upon  the  human  form,  and  in  the  use  of  nude  figures.     The 
relief  sculptures  upon  the  shrine  also  evinced  Italian  methods 

of  composition.  This 
may  have  been  due  to 
the  visit  of  Albrecht 
Diirer  to  Venice,  al- 
though of  his  own  sons 
who  became  his  assist- 
ants, it  is  certain  that 
Hermann,  and  prob- 
ably Peter  Vischer  the 
Younger,  visited  Italy. 
In  1513  he  made  for 
the  remarkable  monu- 
ment of  Kaiser  Maxi- 
milian at  Innsbruck  the 
noteworthy  statues  of 
King  Arthur  and  King 
Theodoric. 

THE  WTJBZBURG 
SCHOOL  held  an  inter- 
mediate position  be- 
tween the  Nuremberg 
and  the  S  w  a  b  i  a  n 
school.  It  produced 
two  important  sculp- 
tors, the  anonymous 
Master  of  the  Altar  of 
the  Herrgottskirche  at 
Creglingen  and  Til- 
man  Riemenschneider. 
The  altar  at  Creglingen 
(1487)  was  thoroughly 
Gothic,  not  only  in  its  architecture  but  in  sentiment  and  in 
treatment ;  but  a  head  of  Adam  in  the  South  Kensington 


ARTHUR   (BY   PETER   VISCHER). 
INNSBRUCK. 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE.  233 

Museum,  attributed  to  the  same  master,  shows  a  formal  beauty 
suggestive  of  Italian  influence.  Tilman  Riemenschneider 
(1460-1531)  represented  a  somewhat  more  advanced  style. 
His  Adam  and  Eve  in  the  portal  of  the  Marienkirche  remind 
us  of  Venetian  and  Lombard  work,  and  his  draped  figures  show 
a  broader  treatment  than  was  customary  in.  purely  German 
sculpture.  His  masterpiece,  the  tomb  of  Heinrich  II.  and 
his  wife  Kunigunde  (1513)  in  the  cathedral  at  Bamberg,  shows, 
however,  that  Italian  methods  had  by  no  means  overcome  his 
local  style. 

THE  SWABIAN  SCHOOL  represented .  grace  and  charm  rather 
than  dramatic  power.  This  is  evident  in  the  work  of  Friedrich 
Berlin  for  the  high  altar  of  the  Jakobskirche  at  Rothenburg 
(1466),  in  the  almost  Italian  crucifix  in  the  Hauptkirche  at 
Nordlingen,  in  the  beautiful  choir  stalls  by  Jorg  Syrlin  in 
I  Jim  Cathedral,  and  in  the  famous  high  altar  at  Blaubeuren. 

BAVAKIA  AND  THE  ATISTEIAN  TYROL  showed  even  more 
strongly  the  infusion  of  influences  from  Venice  and  the  north 
of  Italy.  The  richly  decorative  and  charming  altar  in  the 
church  at  St.  Wolfgang  by  the  most  distinguished  sculptor  of 
this  district,  Michael  Pacher  of  Bruneck,  is  like  a  carved  picture 
by  an  early  Venetian  painter.  The  same  is  true,  in  lesser 
degree,  of  many  other  altars  of  the  Tyrol. 

MIDDLE  AND  NORTH  GERMANY.  The  art  of  the  Netherlands 
was  the  determining  influence  here.  In  this  may  be  detected 
a  pictorial  rather  than  a  sculptural  sense,  greater  attention  to 
detail  than  to  mass,  and  a  fondness  for  many  figures  in  com- 
position. In  the  Middle  Rhine  region,  in  the  cathedrals  of 
Speyer,  Worms,  and  Mainz,  stone  was  preferred  to  wooden 
sculpture.  But  there  were  here  no  sculptors  of  importance. 
In  the  Lower  Rhine  region,  Prussia  and  North  Germany, 
wood-carving  was  preferred  to  stone,  and  the  influence  of  the 
Netherlands  was  still  more  apparent.  In  fact,  Flemish  and 
Dutch  sculptors  are  known  to  have  produced  many  important 
works  in  this  part  of  Germany.  The  records  show  that  the 


234 


HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 


high  altar  at  the  parish  church  at  Calcar  was  the  work  of  a 
sculptor  from  the  Netherlands.  If  we  turn  from  this  to  the 
magnificent  altar  in  the  cathedral  at  Schleswig  (1515-1521), 
with  its  twenty  panels  of  carved  groups,  we  will  recognize  the 
source  from  which  Hans  Briiggeman  drew  his  inspiration. 


FIG.    88.— DEATH    OF   THE   VIRGIN    (BY   RIEMENSCHNEIDER).      WORZBURG  CATHEDRAL. 

In  Saxony,  northern  and  southern  influences  were  sometimes 
united  in  the  production  of  works  which  are  not  without 
charm,  such  as  the  "  beautiful  portal  "  of  the  church  at  Anna- 
berg,  and  the  pulpit  in  the  form  of  a  flower  in  the  cathedral 
at  Freiberg. 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE.  235 

THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTTTBY.  Toward  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century  the  development  of  German  sculpture  was 
arrested  by  the  influence  of  foreign  styles.  In  Southern 
Germany  and  Austria,  Italian  architecture  brought  with  it 
Italian  sculptural  decoration.  Renaissance  pilasters  decorated 
with  floral  or  candelabra  designs,  cabinet  columns,  portrait 
medallions,  dolphins,  sirens,  and  other  North  Italian  motives 
were  freely  employed.  At  the  same  time,  the  peculiar  forms 
of  Flemish  Renaissance  decoration,  arabesques,  curling  band 
ornament,  and  grotesque  figures,  found  their  way  into  Southern 
as  well  as  Northern  Germany.  I*  was  not  a  period  for  great 
monuments.  The  resultant  style  was  a  hybrid  form  of  the 
Italian  Renaissance. 

THE  SEVENTEENTH  AND  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURIES.  During 
the  early  seventeenth  century  the  Thirty  Years'  War  had 
absorbed  the  energies  of  Germany.  This  resulted  in  equal 
rights  to  Catholics  and  Protestants.  Accordingly,  in  the  second 
half  of  this  century  and  throughout  the  eighteenth  century 
we  find  alongside  of  each  other  the  Rococo  or  Jesuit  style  of 
architecture,  with  its  elaborate  figured  ornamentation,  and  the 
barren  style  of  the  Protestants.  The  Catholic  affiliations  were 
with  Italy,  those  of  the  Protestants  with  the  Netherlands.  A 
new  influence,  that  of  France,  now  made  itself  felt,  especially 
in  aristocratic  circles. 

The  German  sculptor  who  stands  out  prominently  in  the 
seventeenth  century  is  Andreas  Schiuter  (1664-1714).  That 
he  was  not  altogether  free  from  Berninesque  methods  is  evi- 
dent from  his  marble  pulpit  in  the  Marienkirche  in  Berlin,  the 
canopy  of  which,  with  its  carved  pediment,  is  covered  with  a 
mass  of  angels  clambering  upon  marble  clouds.  The  same  in- 
fluence is  perceptible  in  his  harmonious  equestrian  statue  of 
the  Great  Elector  Friedrich  III.  and  in  the  decorations  of  the 
Schloss  at  Berlin.  His  most  vigorous  original  work,  the  tragic 
masks  of  Dying  Warriors,  is  in  the  court  of  the  Berlin 
Arsenal.  Georg  Raphael  Dormer  (1692-1741),  in  the  succeed- 


236 


HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 


ing  century,  represented  for  South  Germany  and  Austria  a 
classic  reaction  against  the  Rococo  methods,  and  thus  prepared 
the  way  for  the  new  era  of  modern  sculpture.  His  chef-d' ceuvre 
is  the  Fountain  in  the  New  Market  at  Vienna. 

THE  NETHEKLANDS.  In  the  Netherlands,  sculpture  in  the 
fifteenth  century  remained  thoroughly  Gothic.  Though  sub- 
sidiary to  architecture, 
it  was  held  in  higher 
esteem  than  painting. 
High  altars,  for  the 
most  part,  consisted  of 
biblical  scenes  carved  in 
wood  in  the  most  elabo- 
rate manner.  The  minor 
portions  of  these  altars, 
such  as  the  enclosing 
doors  or  wings,  were 
frequently  decorated  by 
paintings. 

The  destruction  of 
many  of  these  altars  by 
the  Protestants  and  the 
scattering  of  Nether- 
land  sculptors  into 
France,  Germany,  Spain, 
England,  and  Italy  make 
it  difficult  to  obtain  a 
proper  estimate  of  the 
sculpture  of  the  Nether- 
lands. Still,  its  general  course  of  development  is  clear.  In 
the  archives  at  Amsterdam  there  is  preserved  a  series  of  statu- 
ettes of  counts  and  countesses  of  Holland,  which,  in  stiffness 
of  attitude,  in  costume,  and  in  quaintness  of  style,  remind  us 
of  the  figures  in  the  pictures  of  Van  Eyck.  The  rising  im- 
portance of  the  school  of  Brussels  may  be  illustrated  by  a 


FIG.    89. — MASK  OF  A  DYING  WARRIOR  (BY 
SCHLOTER).     ARSENAL,  BERLIN. 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE.  237 

magnificent  altar-piece  with  scenes  from  the  type  of  the  Vir- 
gin, belonging  to  the  church  at  Lombeek  Notre  Dame.  In 
freedom  of  composition  and  naturalism  this  altar-piece  is  not 
behind  the  contemporary  works  of  Flemish  painting. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  the  style  of  the  Renaissance  was 
introduced.  Much  that  was  peculiarly  Flemish  still  remained, 
but,  at  the  same  time,  Italian  influences  were  strongly  felt. 
The  stalls  of  the  church  at  Dordrecht,  by  Jan  Terwen  (1538- 
1542),  might  almost  be  taken  as  the  prototype  for  Lescot  and 
Goujon's  jube  at  St.  Germain  PAuxerrois.  More  thoroughly 
under  the  influence  of  the  developed  Renaissance  of  Italy  was 
the  marble  altar  made  by  Jacques  Dubroeucq  in  1549  for  a 
chapel  in  the  cathedral  at  Mons. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  school  of  Antwerp  came  to 
the  front,  and  the  Rubens  of  Flemish  sculpture,  Francois 
Duquesnoy  (1594-1644),  exerted  a  wide  influence.  In  spite  of 
the  Italian  character  of  his  style,  Duquesnoy  preserved  a  dig- 
nity and  distinction  of  manner  which  remind  us  of  the  great 
sculptors  of  France.  He  is  best  known  by  the  monuments  he 
left  in  Italy,  but  a  fine  example  of  his  work  may  be  seen  in  the 
carved  panels  and  choir  stalls  of  the  church  of  Notre  Dame  at 
Dendermonde.  His  pupil,  Artus  Quellinus  (1609-1668),  was 
a  highly  gifted  sculptor,  whose  influence  extended  from  Am- 
sterdam into  the  north  of  Germany. 

Tne  eighteenth  century  witnessed  a  decline  in  the  sculptural 
art  of  the  Netherlands,  although  now  and  then  excellent  wood- 
carving  continued  to  be  done,  as  in  the  vigorous  statues  over 
the  stalls  of  the  church  at  Wouw. 

SPAIN.  In  Spain,  upon  the  basis  laid  in  the  Gothic  period 
by  architects  and  sculptors  from  France,  there  arose  in  the 
fifteenth  century  a  transitional  style,  stimulated  by  Flemish 
influence,  which  was  in  turn  succeeded  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury by  a  more  monumental  sculpture  under  the  guidance  of 
Italian  artists. 

Immense  tombs  by  Florentine,  and  especially  by  Lombard 


238 


HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 


artists,  were  erected  in  many  important  churches,  Italian 
artists  took  up  their  residence  in  Spain,  and  Italian  methods 
of  decoration  were  generally  substituted  for  the  Gothic.  The 
tomb  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  at  Granada  is  a  fine  example 
of  Italian  work  in  Spain.  In  the  seventeenth  century,  Mon- 


FIG.   QO. — CARVED-WOOD    ALTAR-PIECE   AT   LOMBEEK   NOTRE   DAME. 

tafies  (d.  1614)  and  Alonso  Cano  (1600-1667)  represented  the 
later  phases  of  the  Spanish  Renaissance. 

ENGLAND.  In  England  there  were  few  native  sculptors 
during  the  Renaissance  period.  The  engraved  sculptural  slabs 
in  bronze  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  many  decorative  sculp- 
tures, were  executed  or  inspired  by  sculptors  from  the  Nether- 
lands. In  the  sixteenth  century  more  monumental  works, 
and  Italian  methods,  were  introduced  by  Pietro  Torrigiano 


RENAISSANCE   SCULPTURE.  239 

(1472-1522)  and  by  Benedetto  da  Rovezzano.  The  former 
.designed  the  first  tomb  of  Henry  VII.,  also  the  bronze  effigy 
of  Margaret  of  Richmond  in  the  chapel  of  Henry  VII.  in 
Westminster  Abbey;  the  latter  designed  a  tomb  for  Cardinal 
Wolsey,  the  sarcophagus  of  which  now  holds  the  body  of 
Admiral  Nelson  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  leading  native  sculptor  was 
Nicholas  Stone  (1586-1647),  to  whom  the  De  Vere  and  Villiers 
monuments  at  Westminster  are  commonly  attributed.  He  was 
associated  in  many  works  with  the  architect  Inigo  Jones. 
Grinling  Gibbons  (1648-1721),  an  extraordinarily  skilful  sculp- 
tor, who  worked  also  for  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  seems  to  have 
been  a  native  of  Holland.  During  the  eighteenth  century, 
Flemish  and  French  sculptors  received  all  commissions  of 
importance.  Toward  the  end  of  the  century  the  classical 
revival  began  in  England  under  the  inspiration  of  John  Flax- 
man  (1755-1826).  His  masterly  outline  illustrations  of  the 
poems  of  Homer,  Hesiod,  yEschylus,  and  Dante,  and  hi? 
classic  designs  and  exquisitely  delicate  reliefs  for  Wedgwood 
pottery,  did  more  than  his  attempts  at  monumental  sculpture 
to  start  a  new  current  in  English  sculpture. 

EXTANT  MONUMENTS.  German  Renaissance  sculpture  may  be  studied 
in  the  museums  of  Berlin  (Royal),  Munich  (Germanisches),  Nuremberg 
(National),  and  in  the  churches  and  public  squares  of  Nuremberg,  Bam- 
berg,  Wurzburg,  Rothenburg,  Creglingen,  Ulm,  Blaubeuren,  Augsburg, 
Annaberg,  Freiberg,  Fulda,  Main/,  Calcar,  Xanten,  Schleswig,  and  Berlin. 
In  the  Netherlands,  besides  the  museums  of  Brussels  (Musee  d'Art  Monu- 
mental) and  Amsterdam  (Ryks  Museum),  of  special  interest  are  the 
churches  at  Bruges,  Gheel,  Mons,  Ypres,  Bois-le-l)uc,  and  Breda  ;  in 
Spain,  the  Escorial,  and  the  cathedrals  and  churches  of  Burgos,  Toledo, 
Seville,  Valencia,  Barcelona,  and  Madrid  ;  in  England,  Westminster 
Abbey,  Windsor  Castle,  Chatsworth  and  Warwick  Castles. 


CHAPTER    XXIV. 
MODERN  SCULPTURE' 

IN  ITALY,   DENMARK,    SWEDEN,    GERMANY,   AND   RUSSIA. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  Besides  the  General  Bibliography, 
consult :  Cook,  "  Russian  Bronzes  "  (Harper's  Magazine,  Jan., 
1889).  Description  des  CEuvres  de  Thorwaldsen  an  Muse'e  Thor- 
waldsen.  Dohme,  Kunst  und  Kiinstler  des  XIX  Jahrhunderts. 
Eggers,  Christian  Daniel  Ranch.  Gruneisen  u.  Wagner, 
Dannecker's  Werke.  Liibke,  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Knnst. 
Moses,  The  Works  of  Antonio  Canova.  Plon,  Thorwaldseri 's 
Life  and  Works.  Quatremere  de  Quincy,  Canm>a  et  ses  Ou- 
vrages.  Reber,  Geschichte  der  neueren  deutschen  Kunst.  Scha- 
dow,  Kunstiverke  und  Ktmstansichten.  Schultz,  Umrisse  von 
Werken  Canovas.  Thiele,  Thorwaldseri1  s  Leben. 

INTRODUCTION.  The  emotional  phase  of  Renaissance  sculp- 
ture having  expended  itself  in  extravagant  productions,  it 
was  natural  that  the  nineteenth  century  should  begin  by  a 
return  to  classic  simplicity  and  severity.  This  movement  was 
felt  throughout  Europe.  Sculptors  from  all  nations  emigrated 
to  Rome.  Antique  subjects  now  prevailed,  and  were  exe- 
cuted in  a  more  thoroughly  classical  spirit  than  during  the 
period  of  the  Renaissance..  Religious  themes  were  compara- 
tively neglected.  Sculpture  was  devoted  mainly  to  secular 
purposes,  for  the  private  enjoyment  of  wealthy  patrons. 

But  as  the  democratic  character  of  modern  institutions 
increased,  a  reaction  against  aristocratic  and  classic  sculpture 
became  prevalent.  A  desire  was  felt  for  subjects  more  national 
in  character,  and  especially  for  the  representation  of  men  dis- 
tinguished in  literature,  science,  art,  and  history.  In  this 


MODERN    SCULPTURE. 


241 


stage  sculpture  assumed  a  post-classical,  Christian,  or  roman- 
tic character.  Much  of  the  spirit  of  classicism  was  retained, 
though  its  form  and  substance  had  changed. 


FIG.   qi. —  CVBELE.      LATE   SPANISH    RENAISSANCE. 

Finally,  during  the  latter  half  of  this  century,  the  objective 
spirit   so  manifest    in    science  and    literature    had   also  per- 
16 


242  HISTORY    OF   SCULPTURE. 

meated  plastic  art.  Mythological  and  romantic  subjects  largely 
gave  way  to  the  myriad  actualities  of  modern  life.  The 
centre  of  inspiration  for  sculptors  was  shifted  from  Rome  to 
Paris. 

On  the  technical  side,  the  old  implements  used  in  carving 
and  modelling  have  remained  the  same  as  in  earlier  days,  but 
mechanical  devices  have  multiplied,  by  means  of  which  the 
sculptor's  model  may  be  reproduced  in  any  material  and  on 
any  scale.  Hence  the  modern  sculptor  is  usually  content 
with  fashioning  his  images  in  clay,  leaving  much  of  the  exe- 
cution of  his  work  to  mechanical  reproduction  by  his  work- 
men. He  need  not  be  a  carver;  he  is  often  only  a  modeller. 
These  mechanical  methods  have,  on  the  one  hand,  brought  the 
products  of  sculpture  to  the  homes  of  the  poor,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  they  have  frequently  reacted  disadvantageously 
upon  the  work  of  the  artist  himself. 

ITALY  :  CLASSIC  SCHOOL.  The  modern  revival  of  classical 
sculpture  in  Italy  began  with  Antonio  Canova  (1757-1822). 
He  received  his  first  stimulus  in  sculpture  from  the  patronage 
of  Senator  Giovanni  Falieri  in  Venice.  The  success  which 
followed  his  Orpheus  and  Eurydice,  his  yEsculapius,  and  his 
Daedalus  and  Icarus,  secured  for  him  a  pension  which  enabled 
him,  in  1779,  to  go  to  Rome.  Here  the  influence  of  Raphael 
Mengs  and  of  Winckelmann  had  already  set  the  current  in  favor 
of  classic  simplicity  and  repose.  His  friendship  for  the  English 
painter  Gavin  Hamilton  and  the  French  critic  and  art  histo- 
rian Quatremere  de  Quincy  were  of  value  in  securing  him  rec- 
ognition. His  first  important  work  in  Rome,  Theseus  and  the 
Minotaur,  was  hailed  as  the  revival  of  the  classic  style.  This 
brought  him  many  commissions  in  Rome,  among  which  were 
the  tombs  for  the  Popes  Clement  XIII.  and  XIV.  In  these 
monuments,  and  in  his  Amor  embracing  Psyche,  now  in  the 
IxMivre,  he  was  open  to  the  charge  of  being  a  softened  Ber- 
nini. To  refute  this  charge,  he  aimed  at  stronger  and  more 
masculine  effects  in  his  Hercules  and  Lichas,  and  in  the  stat- 


MODERN   SCULPTURE. 


243 


ties  of  the  boxers  Kreugas  and  Damoxenes.  But  these  works 
only  showed  that  the  criticism  was  well  founded.  His  best 
vein  lay  in  the  direction  of  grace  and  beauty  rather  than  of 
strength.  The  Perseus  which  he  made  to  replace  the  Apollo 
of  the  Belvidere,  and  the  Venus  made  to  replace  the  Venus  de' 
Medici,  which  had  been  removed  to  Paris,  are  masterpieces  of 
graceful  beauty.  We 
find  something  lack- 
ing in  his  busts  and 
in  the  colossal  statue 
of  Napoleon,  but  are 
charmed  by  the  statue 
of  Napoleon's  sister 
Pauline  Borghese.  In 
relief  sculpture  he 
was  less  successful. 

Following  closely 
in  his  wake,  although 
later  a  pupil  of 
Thorwaldsen's,  was 
Pietro  Tenerani 
(1798-1869).  He  was 
a  prolific  workman, 
highly  honored  and 
prized  alike  for  his 
classical  and  Chris- 
tian sculptures.  Of 
the  former  class  his 

Psyche  with  Pandora's  box,  in  the  Palazzo  Lenzoni,  in  Florence, 
has  been  much  admired  ;  of  the  latter,  the  most  important  are 
his  large  relief  of  the  Deposition  in  the  Capella  Torlonia  of 
the  Lateran  and  the  tomb  of  Duchess  Lante  in  S.  Maria  sopra 
Minerva. 

ROMANTIC  SCHOOL.     The  influence  of  Canova  even  in  Italy 
was  met  by  the  counter-influences  of  the  romantic  and  natu- 


KIG.    Q2. — PKKSF.IJS    (l(V    CANOVA).      VATICAN,    ROME. 


244  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

rali stic  school.  Among  the  romanticists,  who  aimed  at  infus- 
ing the  classic  style  with  naturalism,  may  be  counted  Stefano 
Ricci,  Bartolini,  Pampaloni,  and  Pio  Fedi.  9*"frn«»  Bieei. 
praised  by  Canova,  was  the  author  of  many  monuments,  espe- 
cially in  Arezzo,  and  in  S.  Maria  Novella  and  S.  Croce  in 
Florence.  Somewhat  further  removed  from  Canova  was 
Lorenzo  Bartolini  (1777-1850).  His  early  studies  in  Paris 
gave  him  a  bias  toward  naturalism.  His  principles  were  the 
imitation  of  nature  and  a  return  to  simplicity ;  but  he  could 
not  free  himself  altogether  from  the  classic  style,  as  we  may 
see  from  his  group  representing  Charity,  in  the  Pitti,  or  from 
his  Pyrrhus  throwing  Astyanax  from  the  Walls  of  Troy.  Loigi 
PaBpaloni  (1791-1847),  best  known  from  his  statues  of  chil- 
dren, produced  also  many  larger  works,  among  which  may  be 
mentioned  the  tomb  of  Lazzaro  Papi  in  S.  Frediano  at  Lucca 
and  the  colossal  statue  of  Pietro  Leopoldo  in  the  Piazza  di  S. 
Caterina  at  Pisa.  Pio  Fedi,  bom  in  1815,  more  characteris- 
tically Italian  in  his  work,  is  known  by  his  graceful  but  emo- 
tional group  of  the  Rape  of  Polyxena  in  the  Loggia  dei 
Lanzi. 

REALISTIC  SCHOOL  The  natmalistk  tendency,  :.7i>:r:  in 
Italy  than  in  the  north  of  Europe,  has  been  exemplified  in 
the  works  of  Dupre,  Vela,  and  Monteverde.  Giovanni  Dnprt 
(1817-1882),  a  follower  of  Bartolini.  emphasized  the  leaning 
toward  naturalism  found  in  the  work  of  his  master.  He 
attracted  attention  first  by  his  statues  of  Cain  and  Abel  in  the 
Pitti  and  later  by  a  Mi  chela  ngelesque  Pieta  at  Siena.  In  his 
Beatrice  Portinari,  in  the  statue  of  Giotto  at  the  Uffizi.  and  in 
the  Cavour  monument  at  Turin  his  realism  is  still  more  em- 
phatic. Yincenzo  Vel*  (1822-1891),  even  more  modern  in 
sentiment  and  of  great  technical  ability,  shows  himself  to 
have  been  a  dramatic  sculptor  in  such  works  as  his  Spartacns 
and  his  Dying  Napoleon,  but  be  was  equally  successful  in 
ideal  works,  as,  for  example,  his  Primavera.  A  rising  sculptor 
of  considerable  ability  and  dramatic  power  at  the  present  time 


MODERN   SCULPTURE. 


245 


is  Ettore  Ximenes,  from  whom  we  may  expect  works  of 
monumental  importance.  But  the  average  Italian  sculpture  of 
to-day  is  devoted  to 
domestic  subjects  of 
trivial  though  grace- 
ful character.  It 
evinces  the  spirit  of 
a  Canova  no  longer 
occupied  with  gods 
and  heroes,  but  roam- 
ing about  in  search  of 
grace  and  charm  in 
modern  life. 

DENMARK  AND 
SWEDEN.  Among  the 
earliest  of  the  nations 
of  Northern  Europe  to 
participate  in  the 
modern  classic  revival 
were  Denmark  and 
Sweden.  Danish  sculp- 
ture received  an  im- 
pulse in  this  direction 
from  a  Frenchman,  T. 
F.  J.  Saly,  who  be- 
came director  of  the 
Academy  at  C  o  p  e  n  - 
hagen.  H  i  s  succes- 
sors, Johannes  Wiede- 
welt  and  Weidenhaupt, 
drew  their  inspiration 
from  Paris  and  from 
Rome  ;  but  a  stronger  representation  of  the  classic  spirit  was 
found  in  Bertel  Tkorwaldsen  (1770-1844).  He  was  a  more 
thorough  classicist  than  Canova,  for  in  Canova  there  still  sur- 


FIG.   93. — GIOTTO     (BY     DUI'Kfe).        PORTICO     OK    THE 
UFFIZI,    FLORENCE. 


246  HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 

vived  something  of  the  spirit  of  Bernini,  whereas  Thorwaldsen 
was  not  embarrassed  by  such  traditions.  His  arrival  in  Rome 
was  to  him  the  opening  of  a  new  life.  "  I  was  born  on  the 
8th  of  March,  1797,"  he  used  to  say;  "  before  then  I  did  not 
exist."  In  Rome  he  copied  ancient  statues  and  absorbed  the 
spirit  of  classic  sculpture.  His  first  statue  of  importance, 
the  Jason,  received  ready  recognition  from  the  neo-classicists. 
Canova  said  of  it:  "  This  work  of  the  Danish  youth  exhibits 
a  new  and  grand  style."  An  English  banker,  Sir  Thomas 
Hope,  ordered  it  executed  in  marble.  German  artists,  like 
Carstens,  and  scholars,  like  Zoe'ga,  were  helpful  friends ;  and 
pupils  from  all  nations  flocked  to  his  studio.  In  the  work  of 
these  early  years  he  treated  by  preference  graceful  Praxitelean 
subjects,  such  as  Adonis,  Psyche,  Venus,  Hebe. 

In  1812  Napoleon  was  expected  in  Rome,  and  Thorwaldsen 
was  employed  to  make  the  frieze  for  one  of  the  most  spacious 
halls  of  the  Quirinal  Palace.  Taking  the  work  of  Pheidias  as 
his  model,  he  produced  a  magnificent  frieze  representing  the 
entrance  of  Alexander  into  Babylon.  His  eminent  success  in 
this  made  him  known  among  the  Romans  as  the  "  patriarca  del 
basso-rilievo."  During  the  decade  which  followed,  Thorwald- 
sen was  at  the  height  of  his  powers.  To  this  period  belong 
his  Achilles  and  Priam,  Night  and  Morning  (1815),  The 
Shepherd  Boy  (1817),  and  the  Mercury  (1818).  He  now 
restored  for  Prince  Louis  of  Bavaria  the  archaic  sculptures 
from  ^Egina,  and  occasionally,  as  in  his  statue  of  Hope, 
adopted  the  conventions  of  archaic  sculpture. 

His  success  in  Rome  led  the  King  of  Denmark  to  urge 
his  return  to  Copenhagen.  Here  he  went  several  times, 
and  here  he  died  in  1844.  The  demand  made  upon  him  in 
Copenhagen  was  chiefly  for  religious  sculptures.  In  the  Frue 
Kirche  is  his  Christ  and  the  Twelve  Apostles,  the  Angel  of 
Baptism,  and  several  reliefs,  while  in  the  pediment  over  the 
entrance  is  his  terracotta  group  of  the  Preaching  of  John  the 
Baptist. 


MODERN   SCULPTURE. 


247 


The  influence  of  Thorwaldsen  was  perpetuated  in  his  own 
country  by  H.  W.  Bissen  (1798-1868),  who  early  manifested 
the  romantic  tendency  for  subjects  from  Norse  instead  of 
Greek  mythology.  In  his  later  years  he  caught  the  naturalistic 
spirit  of  modern  days,  and  was  strong  in  portraiture.  Of  the 
living  sculptors  of  Norway,  J.  A.  Jerichau  is  a  close  follower 
of  Thorwaldsen. 

SWEDEN.    In  Sweden,  also,  classic  influences  were  introduced 


FIG.   94. — MONUMENT  TO    PROF.    VACCA    BKRLINGHIERI    (BY   THORWALDSEN). 
CAMPOSANTO,    PISA. 

by  French  sculptors.  Here  the  younger  Bouchardon  (d.  1762) 
and  Larcheveque  (d.  1778)  gave  the  direction  to  Swedish  sculp- 
ture in  the  last  century.  The  most  distinguished  Swedish 
classicist  was  J.  T.  Sergell  (1736-1813).  He  spent  twelve 
years  in  Rome,  and  then  returned  to  Stockholm.  The  German 
sculptor  Schadow  says  of  him  :  "  He  is  less  widely  known  than 
Thorwaldsen,  but  stands  equally  high  in  the  estimation  of  con- 


248  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

noisseurs."  His  successor  Fogelberg  was  a  romanticist,  and 
made  famous  statues  of  Odin,  Thor,  and  Balder. 

GERMANY.  In  Germany  the  Rococo  style  had  become  so 
thoroughly  established  that  pictorial  methods  prevailed  over 
the  sculptural,  and  the  eighteenth  century  left  German  sculp- 
ture at  a  low  ebb.  In  the  revival  of  the  early  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, Germany  looked  to  Italy  for  instruction,  and  her  most 
distinguished  sculptors  went  to  Rome.  But  the  Protestant 
German  nature  was  too  independent  to  submit  to  Catholic  Italy. 
As  the  centre  of  power  shifted  to  Berlin,  the  patriotic  soon 
replaced  the  classic  style.  At  the  end  of  the  last  century  a 
school  of  sculptors  at  Stuttgart,  headed  by  Dannecker  and 
Scheffauer,  manifested  a  strong  classic  spirit.  Johann  Hein- 
rich  Dannecker  (1758-1841)  studied  first  in  Paris  under  Pajou, 
then  went  to  Rome,  and  came  under  the  influence  of  Canova. 
His  works  are  characterized  by  grace  and  a  certain  measure  of 
refinement.  He  is  best  known  by  his  Ariadne  and  the  Panther, 
at  Frankfort.  As  a  sculptor  of  Christian  subjects  he  was  less 
successful.  His  associate  P.  J.  Scheffauer  (1756-1808)  helped 
him  to  establish  the  classic  style  in  Stuttgart. 

Stronger  and  more  representative  were  the  schools  at  Berlin 
under  the  leadership  of  Schadow  and  Rauch,  at  Dresden  under 
Hahnel  and  Schilling,  and  at  Munich  under  Schwanthaler. 
The  school  of  Berlin  has  been  chiefly  historical  and  realistic 
in  tendency,  while  Munich  has  stood  for  romanticism. 

BEELIN  SCHOOL.  Johann  Gottfried  Schadow  (1764-1850) 
received  his  first  artistic  impulses  from  Tassaert,  a  Flemish 
sculptor  established  in  Berlin.  In  1785  he  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  was  especially  attracted  by  ancient  historical  sculp- 
ture. On  the  death  of  Frederick  the  Great  he  proposed 
making  of  him  an  equestrian  statue  in  Roman  costume, 
having  in  mind  doubtless  the  figure  of  Marcus  Aurelius  of  the 
Capitol ;  but  when  he  made  the  statue  later,  for  Stettin,  it 
was  in  the  costume  of  the  period.  His  statue  of  Leopold  of 
Dessau  marks  the  transition  from  the  classic  to  the  patriotic 


MODERN   SCULPTURE. 


249 


style.  The  figure  of  Leopold  is  clad  in  the  regimentals  of  the 
period,  but  the  reliefs  on  the  pedestal  are  costumed  in  classic 
style.  When  asked  by  Queen  Louise  why  he  had  done  this,  he 
replied :  "  The  poets  and  artists  would  all  make  an  outcry 
against  the  Prussian  costume."  But  she  voiced  a  deeper  Ger- 


FIG.  95. — ARIADNE  (l!Y  UANNECKER).   FRANKFORT. 

man  feeling  when  she  answered  :  "  I  do  not  understand  why  any- 
one should  object.  If  my  husband  wanted  Greek  and  Roman 
generals,  well  and  good;  but  he  wants  Prussians.  How,  then, 
are  they  to  be  distinguished  ?  "  Although  the  sculptor  of  many 
portraits,  Schadow  was  at  his  best  when  an  ideal  element  was 


250  HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 

involved,  as  in  his  Quadriga  of  Victory  over  the  Brandenburger 
Thor  at  Berlin,  and  in  his  Nymph  awaking  out  of  Sleep.  Of 
the  pupils  of  Schadow,  Christian  Friedrich  Tieck  (1776-1851) 
spent  fourteen  years  in  Rome,  and  on  his  return  adorned  the 
Royal  Theatre  of  Berlin  with  dramatic  sculptures  of  mytho- 
logical character.  Rudolph  Schadow  (1786-1822),  the  eldest 
son  of  Johann  Gottfried  Schadow,  turned  his  attention  to  the 
ideal  genre  and  produced  works  of  lyric  character. 

The  realistic  tendency  which  seemed  forced  in  the  works  of 
Schadow  became  strong  and  natural  in  the  works  of  Christian 
Daniel  Ranch  (1777-1857).  He  holds  the  highest  rank 
among  the  historical  sculptors  of  Germany.  The  inspiration 
he  received  from  the  ancient  sculptures  of  Rome  corrected  and 
improved  his  sense  of  form,  without  subjecting  his  spirit. 
Even  German  romanticism  did  not  divert  him  from  strictly  his- 
torical treatment.  His  monumental  works  were  thoroughly 
national,  but  conceived  with  an  attentive  regard  for  plastic 
beauty.  His  monument  of  Queen  Louise  at  the  Mausoleum 
at  Charlottenburg  is  a  living  portrait,  and  at  the  same  time 
an  ideal  of  womanhood.  Rauch's  ideals  of  manhood  were 
expressed  in  his  statues  of  Generals  Scharnhorst  and  Biilow 
near  the  guard-house  in  Berlin,  and  in  the  heroic  Albrecht 
Dtirer  at  Nuremberg.  His  monumental  works  were  restful  and 
dignified,  with  the  exception  of  the  Bliicher  monument  at 
Breslau,  which  was  made  after  a  design  by  Schadow.  His 
seated  statue  of  Maximilian  I.  at  Munich  is  a  fine  example  of 
his  power.  More  important  still  is  the  statue  of  Frederick 
the  Great  at  Berlin,  which  occupied  his  attention  during  the 
years  from  1839  to  1851.  In  dignity,  harmony,  and  beauty  of 
composition  this  monument  marks  the  highest  point  reached 
by  German  sculpture. 

Of  his  pupils  and  followers  in  Berlin  may  be  mentioned 
Drake,  Blaser,  Schievelbein,  and  Kiss.  Friedrich  Drake 
(b.  1805)  has  been  a  close  follower  of  the  spirit  of  Rauch, 
as,  for  example,  in  his  equestrian  statue  of  Kaiser  Wilhelm  I. 


MODERN   SCULPTURE. 


251 


at  Cologne,  and  in  his  statues  of  Rauch  and  Schinkel  at 
Berlin.  Gustav  Blaser  (1813-1874)  of  Cologne  represented 
the  same  tendency.  His  Francke  monument  at  Magdeburg  is 
to  be  classed  with  the 
best  of  modern  Ger- 
man portrait  statues. 
Friedrich  Hermann 
Schievelbein.  (1817- 
1867)  sculptured  the 
group  on  the  palace 
bridge  at  Berlin  rep- 
resenting Pallas  in- 
structing a  youth  in 
the  use  of  the  spear. 
His  frieze  of  the  De- 
struction of  Pompeii 
in  the  Greek  court  of 
the  New  Museum  is 
dramatic  in  character 
and  seems  to  have 
been  inspired  by  the 
frieze  of  the  Apollo 
Temple  at  Phigaleia. 
August  Kiss  (1804- 
1865),  especially  cel- 
ebrated for  his  ani- 
mals in  bronze,  rep- 
resented the  active 

FIG.    96. — THE   TWO    PRINCESSES    (l)Y    SCHADOW). 
CASTLE,    UEKI.IN. 


and  emotional  side  of 


the  school.     His  best 

work  is  the  Mounted  Amazon  fighting  a  Tiger,  on    the  steps 

of  the  Old  Museum  at  Berlin. 

DKESDEN  SCHOOL.  The  Dresden  school,  intermediate  between 
that  of  Berlin  and  of  Munich,  represents  a  tendency  partially 
historic  and  partially  romantic.  Ernst  Friedrich  August 


252 


HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 


Rietschel  (1804-1861)  was  a  pupil  of  Rauch,  then  a  student  at 
Rome.     His  monument  of  King  Friedrich  August  in  the  Zwinger 


FIG.    97. — MONUMENT   OF   FREDERICK   THE    GREAT    (BY    RAUCH).      BERLIN. 

at  Dresden  is  based  upon  Rauch's  statue  of  Maximilian  I. ; 
and  his  statue  of  Lessing  at  Brunswick  is  an  excellent  example 


MODERN   SCULPTURE.  253 

of  the  refined  portraiture  of  the  same  school.  The  spirit  of 
romanticism  appears  in  his  Luther  monument  at  Worms.  He 
excelled  in  works  where  religious  feeling  was  involved,  as  in 
the  Pieta  in  the  Friedenskirche  at  Potsdam.  Ernst  Hahnel  (b. 
1811)  studied  in  Italy,  then  at  Munich.  His  works  represent 
the  transition  from  the  classical  to  the  romantic  style.  To  the 
former  class  belongs  his  Bacchus  frieze  on  the  upper  portion  of 
the  Dresden  Theatre  ;  to  the  latter  his  monument  to  Beethoven 
at  Bonn,  with  its  reliefs  in  the  style  of  Cornelius  and  Overbeck. 
Johannes  Schilling  (b.  1828)  followed  in  the  line  of  Hahnel. 
His  group  of  the  Night,  on  the  Briihl  Terrace  at  Dresden,  shows 
the  influence  of  his  Roman  training,  but  his  colossal  figure  of 
Germania  at  Niederwald  is  a  thoroughly  national,  "  pracht- 
volles  "  monument,  not  altogether  free  from  the  Rococo  spirit 
of  the  earlier  Dresden  school. 

THE  MUNICH  SCHOOL  of  the  early  nineteenth  century  repre- 
sented romanticism  tempered  by  the  classic  style.  Konrad 
Eberhard  (1768-1859)  studied  in  Rome,  and  on  his  return 
gave  up  the  production  of  Muses,  Fauns,  and  Dianas  for  the 
decoration  of  portals  and  making  of  statues  in  the  mediaeval 
style.  He  became  a  religious  fanatic.  Ludwig  Schwanthaler 
(1802-1848),  in  spite  of  repeated  visits  to  Rome  and  the 
responses  he  frequently  made  to  the  demand  for  classic 
themes,  was  at  his  best  in  the  treatment  of  national  subjects, 
such  as  the  twelve  gilded  bronze  figures  of  Bavarian  kings  for 
the  throne-room  of  the  Konigsbau,  the  colossal  figure  of 
Bavaria  in  front  of  the  Ruhmeshalle,  and  the  Hermann  Battle 
in  one  of  the  pediments  of  the  Walhalla  near  Regensburg. 

In  this  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  German  sculpture 
has  vibrated  between  the  romantic  and  the  naturalistic 
schools.  Adolph  Hildebrand,  of  Jena,  in  his  Shepherd  Boy 
aimed  at  more  naturalistic  effect  than  did  Thorwaldsen  in  his 
Shepherd  and  the  Dog.  Naturalism  is  flourishing  in  the  Berlin 
school,  and  is  best  exemplified  in  the  works  of  Reinhold  Begas, 
whose  genre  studies  are  full  of  life  and  whose  portraits  are 


254 


HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 


excellent.    In  Munich,  Caspar  Zumbusch  (b.  1830),  the  sculp- 
tor of  the  Maximilian  II.  monument  and  the  statue  of  Count 


FIG.    98. — RUSSIAN    STANDARD-BEARER    (BY    LANCERE). 

Rumford,  represents  the  realistic  tendency,  while  Conrad  Knoll, 

Anton  Hess,  and  others  continue  to  work  in  the  romantic  field. 

EUSSIA.     In  Russia  the  absence  of  marble,  the  severity  of 


MODERN   SCULPTURE.      .  255 

the  climate,  the  interdict  of  the  church  against  sculpture  in 
the  round,  and  of  the  state  against  the  use  of  bronze  except 
for  images  of  the  sovereign  and  high  officials,  retarded  the 
progress  of  sculpture.  Russian  sculpture  is,  therefore,  of  very 
recent  growth,  and  almost  exclusively  confined  to  small 
bronzes.  These,  however,  furnish  characteristic  and  interest- 
ing pictures  of  contemporary  life. 

The  best  known  sculptors  of  Russia  are  Lancere  and  Lie- 
berich,  though  excellent  work  has  been  done  by  Samonoff, 
Posene,  Naps,  Gratchoff,  Kamensky,  and  Genzburg. 

Lancere's  bronzes  are  full  of  spirited  action  and  modelled 
with  extreme  attention  to  details.  His  subjects,  whether  for- 
eign studies,  such  as  An  Arab  Fantasia,  An  Arab  with  the 
Lion's  Cub,  A  Donkey  Driver,  An  Arab  Horseman,  or  more 
thoroughly  Russian,  as  Cossack  Soldiers  watering  their  Horses, 
The  Standard  Bearer,  and  The  Opritchnike  (Freebooter),  are 
sympathetic  pictures  of  modem  Oriental  and  Russian  life  with 
which  the  horse  is  almost  invariably  associated. 

Lieberich.  (b.  1828)  is  a  skilful  and  varied  sculptor  of  ani- 
mals. His  Wolf  Chase,  Hare  Hunt,  Falconer,  Fight  with  a 
Bear,  Samoyed  and  Reindeer  Team,  are  full  of  action  and 
life,  and  evince  minute  study  of  details. 

Samonoff,  Posene,  and  Naps  have  devoted  themselves  to  genre 
views  of  peasant  life,  such  as  a  Cossack  lighting  his  Pipe, 
Emigrants  to  the  Amoor,  etc.  Gratchoff  is  extremely  clever 
in  portraying  types  of  Russian  character;  Feodor  Kamensky 
has  introduced  into*  his  works  a  touch  of  Italian  grace ;  and 
Genzburg,  in  his  original  and  expressive  Boy  Bathing,  has 
proved  himself  a  sculptor  of  considerable  merit. 

EXTANT  MONUMENTS.  The  products  of  modern  sculpture  are  dis- 
tributed in  the  churches,  cemeteries,  public  squares  and  parks,  civic  build- 
ings, museums,  libraries,  historical  societies,  and  private  collections.  Oc- 
casionally specific  collections  are  made,  as  in  the  Thorwaldsen  Museum  at 
Copenhagen  ;  the  Rauch  Museum,  Merlin  ;  the  Kietschel  and  the  Schil- 
ling Museums,  Dresden  ;  and  the  Schwanthaler  Museum,  Munich. 


CHAPTER    XXV. 
MODERN    SCULPTURE    IN    FRANCE. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  Alexandra.  A.  L.  Barye.  Benedite, 
Le  Muste  du  Luxembourg.  Bertrand,  Francois  Rude.  Brown- 
ell,  French  Art.  Chesneau,  Le  Statuaire  Carpeaux.  Claretie, 
Peintres  et  Sculpteurs  Contetnporains.  Dohme.  KunstundKiinst- 
kr  d?s  XIX  Jahrhunderts.  Fourcaud,  Francois  Rude.  Gonse, 
La  Sculpture  Fran$aise  ;  Chefs  d'  (Euvres  de  P  Art  au  XIXe 
Siecle.  Jouin,  David  d' Angers.  Charles  de  Kay,  Life  and 
Works  of  Antoine  Louis  Barye. 

REVOLUTIONARY  CHANGES.  In  France  the  Revolution  at  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century  signified  the  substitution  of 
democratic  for  aristocratic  ideas  and  methods.  This  resulted 
in  the  destruction  of  many  fine  statues,  but  not  of  the  sculp- 
tor's- art.  At  first  classical  methods,  especially  those  of  repub- 
lican Rome,  prevailed.  But  already  in  the  first  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century  a  romantic  and  naturalistic  reaction  made 
itself  felt.  The  classical  movement  expressed  itself  in  the 
works  of  Chaudet,  Bosio,  and  Pradier;  the  romantic,  in  those 
of  Preault  and  others  of  lesser  note;  the  naturalistic,  in  the 
monuments  of  David  d'Angers,  Rude,  and  Barye. 

THE  CLASSICAL  SCHOOL.  Antoine  Denis  Chaudet  (1763-1810) 
studied  in  Rome  and  was  a  classicist  of  the  severe  type.  He 
made  the  colossal  statue  of  Napoleon  which  occupied  the 
summit  of  the  Colonne  Vendome  until  1814.  His  best  works 
were,  however,  of  an  ideal  character,  such  as  his  Paul  and 
Virginia,  his  CEdipus  called  to  Life  by  Phorbas,  and  his  Amor 
in  the  Museum  in  the  Louvre.  Francois  Joseph  Bosio  (1769- 


MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE. 


257 


FIG.    99. — THE    DEPARTURE   OF   THE    VOLUNTEERS   OF    1792    (l(V    KUDK). 
AKC    UK   TKIOMI'HK,    I'AKIS. 

1845),  a  pupil  of  Pajou,  was  eminently  a  sculptor  of  grace- 
ful subjects,  such  as  the  Reclining  Hyacinth  and  the  Nymph 
Salmacis  in  the  Ixmvre.     As  sculptor  to  the  court  of  Napo- 
17 


258  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 

Icon,  he  was  highly  esteemed  for  his  portraits.  In  the  works 
of  James  Pradier  (1792-1862)  we  find,  with  the  classic  spirit 
and  great  technical  perfection,  a  grace  of  manner  leaning 
toward  sensuous  treatment.  His  Victories  on  the  tomb  of 
Napoleon  and  on  the  Arc  de  Triomphe  were  graceful  exam- 
ples of  monumental  decoration,  but  his  semi-sensuous  Atalanta 
in  the  Louvre,  the  Odalisque  Accroupie  at  Lyons,  and  the 
Three  Graces  at  Versailles  give  some  weight  to  the  remark  of 
Preault,  that  Pradier  departed  every  morning  for  Athens  and 
returned  every  evening  to  the  Rue  Breda. 

Of  the  many  pupils  of  Pradier  the  most  distinguished  were 
Antoine  Etex,  who  was  successful  as  a  rival  of  Rude  in  the 
decoration  of  the  Arc  de  Triomphe,  and  Jean  Baptiste  Eugene 
Guillaume,  author  of  the  Tomb  of  the  Gracchi  at  the  Luxem- 
bourg, and  of  many  pleasing  busts.  This  French  classic 
school  sometimes  manifested  a  realistic  sense  and  an  emo- 
tionalism which  promised  soon  to  burst  the  bonds  of  classical 
convention.  Of  such  a  character  was  Cartellier  (1757-1833), 
the  master  of  Rude,  and  Lemot  (1781-1827)  of  Lyons,  the 
sculptor  of  the  life.-like  equestrian  statue  of  Louis  XIV.  at 
Lyons,  and  Francois  Gre'goire  Giraud  (1783-1836),  an  indepen- 
dent and  original  sculptor,  and  Francois  Joseph  Duret  (1805- 
1865),  whose  Neapolitan  Dancer  and  Improvisatore  are 
inspired  as  much  by  the  model  as  by  the  classic  sense  of  form. 

THE  ROMANTIC  SCHOOL.  As  the  century  advanced,  classic 
restraint  gave  way  to  the  growth  of  national  pride,  which 
expressed  itself  in  romanticism  on  the  one  hand  and  natural- 
ism on  the  other.  The  latter  school  was  by  far  the  stronger. 
The  romanticists  reverted  to  mediaeval  France  for  their  inspi- 
ration. To  this  class  belonged  Pr6ault,  the  sculptor  of  the 
statue  of  Jacques  Cceur  at  Bourges,  of  Marceau  at  Chartres, 
and  of  the  Gothic  Knight  on  the  Pont  d'Ie"na  in  Paris.  Of  a 
similar  character  was  the  Francesca  da  Rimini  by  Mile. 
F6licie  de  Fauveau,  the  Jeanne  d'Arc  of  Princess  Marie 
d'0rl6ans,  the  works  of  Baron  Triqueti,  Du  Seigneur,  and 


MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE. 


259 


Antonin  Moine.  The  statues  of  saints  around  the  Madeleine, 
by  Desbceufe,  Chalouette,  Fouchere,  and  Danton,  are  not  so  far 
removed  from  the  style  of  the  classicists. 

THE  EAKLY  NATURALISTS.  The  appeal  to  nature  struck  a 
deeper  chord  in  the  heart  of  modern  France.  David  d' Angers 
(1789-1856)  was  the  pupil  of  the  painter  David  and  "of  the 
sculptor  Rolland.  He  also  frequented  the  ateliers  of  Canova 
and  Thorwaldsen.  His  works  were  not  always  free  from  the 
classic  style,  as,  for  example,  in  his  General  Foy,  clad  in 


FIG.    100. — THE    LION    AND   THE   SNAKE    (BRONZE    BY    BARYfi).      TUII.ERIES,    PARIS. 

Roman  costume,  and  in  his  Philopcemen.  Even  in  his  gable 
sculptures  for  the  Pantheon,  classic  conventions  struggled  with 
more  modern  modes  of  expression.  But  his  General  Gobert 
was  represented  as  a  man  of  his  time,  and  his  many  busts 
and  medallions  were  characteristic  portraits. 

Francois  Rude  (1784-1855)  was  a  native  of  Dijon,  where  he 
imbibed  the  Flemish  realism  which  characterized  the  Burgun- 
dian  school.  But  in  Paris  his  early  prizes  (1809  and  1812) 
were  won  by  treating  classic  themes  such  as  Marius  on  the 


260  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 

Ruins  of  Carthage  and  Aristaeus  deploring  the  Loss  of  his 
Bees.  The  relief  which  he  made  for  the  Chateau  de  Ter- 
vueren  at  Brussels  treated  of  the  Hunt  of  Meleager  and  the 
History  of  Achilles.  As  late  as  1827  his  Mercury  was  still 
conventional  sculpture.  It  was  not  until  1831  that  in  his 
Young  Fisher  Boy  playing  with  a  Turtle  he  made  what  Charles 
Lenormant  called  a  "  protest  against  the  icy  dreams  of  the 
ideal."  By  1836  he  completed  his  masterpiece,  the  Depart- 
ure of  the  Volunteers  of  1792,  which  decorates  one  of  the 
piers  of  the  Arc  de  Triomphe.  This  was  still  classic,  in  the 
sense  that  the  Giant  Frieze  of  Pergamon  was  classic,  but,  at  the 
same  time,  national  enough  to  be  called  the  Marseillaise.  It 
was  the  extreme  expression  of  patriotic  enthusiasm. 

From  this  time  forward  the  naturalistic  and  historic  spirit 
became  evident  in  Rude's  works.  In  his  statue  of  the  Marechal 
de  Saxe  he  reverts  to  the  eighteenth-century  conventions;  in 
that  of  Louis  XIII.  to  those  of  the  seventeenth  century.  His 
Jeanne  d'Arc  listening  to  the  Voices  (1845)  was  mediaeval 
French.  Thoroughly  modern  was  his  Gaspard  Monge  at 
Beaune,  his  Mare'chal  Ney  in  Paris,  and  his  Napoleon  waking 
to  Immortality  at  Fixin.  In  his  Hebe  and  his  Love  domi- 
nating the  World,  works  of  his  old  age,  he  went  back  to  the 
classic  spirit  of  his  youth. 

Antoine  Louis  Barye  (1795-1875)  widened  the  range  of 
French  sculpture  by  his  devotion  to  the  representation  of  ani- 
mals, by  his  varied  and  skilful  manipulation  of  bronze,  and  by 
the  emphasis  he  laid  upon  massive  modelling  as  opposed  to 
precise  outlines  and  delicately  curved  surfaces.  These  were 
unexpected  results  from  a  pupil  of  Bosio  and  Gros,  and  of  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts.  His  real  inspiration  came  from  the 
writings  of  Buffon,  Lamarck,  Cuvier,  and  from  the  fine  col- 
lection of  animals  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes.  His  subjects 
were  frequently  contests;  e.g.,  a  Tiger  devouring  a  Gavial,  a 
Lion  crushing  a  Serpent  or  a  Tiger,  a  Lapith  fighting  a  Cen- 
taur, a  Jaguar  devouring  a  Hare — contests  illustrative  of  the 


MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE. 


261 


force  and  strength  of  the  nobler  animals.      His  works  as  a 
whole  were  a  protest  against  the  classic  restriction  to  the  nude 
human  form.     As  an 
historical     series,    they 
illustrated  the  develop- 
ment from  a  minute  and 
detailed  to  a  broad  and 
massive  style. 

CONTEMPORARY 
SCULPTURE.  During  the 
second  half  of  the  pres- 
ent century  the  classical 
school  has  been  largely 
replaced  by  a  half- 
classic,  half-naturalistic 
school,  in  which  the 
naturalists  have  been 
gaining  ground.  Classic 
influences  were  still 
strong  in  the  works  of 
Henri  Chapu  (1833- 
1891),  the  pupil  of 
Pradier  and  Duret,  as 
maybe  seen  in  his  Mer- 
cury inventing  the 
Caduceus,  and  in  his 
graceful  figure  of  Youth 
placing  an  Olive  Branch 
on  the  Tomb  of  Henri 
Regnault,  but  they  were 
somewhat  less  strong  in 
his  kneeling  figure  of 
Jeanne  d'Arc  in  the  Louvre.  Severely  classic  also  are  Augustin 
Alexandre  Dumont  in  his  Genius  of  Liberty  on  the  Colonne  de 
la  Bastille,  and  in  his  portrait  statues;  Francois  Jouffroy 


FIG.    101. — THE     FLORENTINE     SINGF.K     (liV     PAUL 
DUBOIS).       LUXEMBOURG,    PARIS. 


262  HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 

(1806-1882)  in  his  Young  Girl  telling  her  Secret  to  Venus; 
Perraud  in  his  Les  Adieux,  which  is  inspired  by  Athenian 
sepulchral  reliefs. 

THE  ACADEMIC  SCHOOL.  The  organized  teaching  of  France, 
as  represented  by  the  Institute  and  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts, 
no  longer  upholds  the  severely  classic  style.  The  romantic 
and  naturalistic  reaction  has  gained  ground  so  far  that  even  in 
conservative  quarters  the  French  Renaissance,  or,  if  you  please, 
the  Italian  Renaissance,  is  now  of  more  immediate  influence 
than  Greece  and  Rome.  The  work  of  this  school  is  emi- 
nently characterized  by  elegance,  technical  perfection,  and  the 
absence  of  inharmonious  detail.  The  school  contains  a  long 
list  of  able  sculptors. 

Paul  Dubois  (1829-1905)  is  a  leader,  as  well  as  one  of  the 
most  inspired  representatives  of  the  school.  In  his  youthful 
St.  John,  his  Florentine  Singer,  and  his  Narcissus  he  may  be 
compared  to  Donatello ;  and  in  his  figures  of  Faith,  Charity, 
Military  Courage,  and  Meditation,  on  the  tomb  oi  General 
Lamoriciere  at  Nantes,  he  has  all  the  style,  and  more  than  the 
charm,  of  Civitali. 

Jean  Alexandre  Falguiere  (b.  1831),  a  pupil  of  Jouffroy, 
broke  away  from  his  master's  severe  style,  and  infused  life  and 
motion  into  sculpture  in  his  Running  Victor  in  the  Cock 
Fight.  Original  and  charming  is  his  conception  in  the  Young 
Martyr  Tarcisius,  in  the  Luxembourg.  More  monumental  are 
his  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul  and  his  Progress  overcoming  Error, 
at  the  Pantheon.  Puech,  another  pupil  of  Jouffroy,  has  also 
surpassed  his  master  in  his  charming  Muse  of  Andre  Chenier 
and  his  Siren,  at  the  Luxembourg.  P'alguiere's  pupil,  Antonin 
Merci6  (b.  1845),  is  an  artist  of  great  grace  and  refinement. 
His  David  loses  nothing  when  compared  with  Verrocchio's, 
and  his  Gloria  Victis  is  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  modern 
sculpture.  Justly  popular,  too,  is  his  Quand  Meme,  in  the 
garden  of  the  Tuileries,  and  full  of  delicate  sentiment  his 
Souvenir  for  the  Tomb  of  Mme  Charles  Ferry.  For  rhythm, 


MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE. 


263 


movement,  and  delicacy  of   sentiment,   Mercie  enjoys  well- 
earned  distinction.       Less  elevated  in  his  conceptions,   but 


FIG.    102. — THE    SECKKT   oh     I  UK    TO. Mil    (liV    SAINT   MAKCKAUX).      1.UXKMI1UUKU,    PAKIS. 

equally  perfect  in  style,  is  Ren6  de  Saint  Marceaux.      He  is 
somewhat     fantastic    and     Michelangelesque    in    his    Genius 


264 


HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 


Guarding  the  Secret  of  the  Tomb,  in  the  Luxembourg;  but 
more  subtile  and  French  in  his  Harlequin,  in  the  museum  at 
Rheims.  Nearly  the  equal  of  Paul  Dubois  is  Louis  Ernest 
Barrias  (b.  1841),  best  known  by  his  statue  of  the  Youthful 
Mozart  with  the  Violin,  and  his  First  Funeral,  in  which 
Aclarn  and  Eve  are  grieving  over  the  dead  Abel.  Moreau 
Vauthier  (d.  1893)  was  almost  a  Florentine,  if  we  may  judge 
by  the  exquisitely  modelled  bust  of  Mr.  Lucas  in  the  Metro- 
politan Museum,  New  York.  Chaplain  and  Roty  have  brought 
the  production  of  medals  and  plaques  to  a  higher  degree  of 


FIG.    103. — PAN   AND   THE    BEARS    (BY    FREMIET).      LUXEMBOURG,    PARIS. 

technical  perfection  than  was  reached  by  the  great  medallists 
of  the  Italian  and  French  Renaissance  or  by  David  d'Angers. 
THE  LATER  NATURALISTS.  As  followers  in  the  line  of  Rude 
and  Barye  we  may  mention,  first,  Jean  Baptiste  Carpeaux 
(1827-1875),  a  pupil  of  Rude,  and  a  sculptor  of  considerable 
emotional  and  dramatic  power.  His  portrait  busts,  such  as 
those  of  Gerome  (1872)  and  Alexandre  Dumas  (1875),  are 
full  of  life.  His  relationship  to  Rude  is  more  evident  in  the 
stirring  relief  of  the  Dance,  in  the  facade  of  the  New  Opera 
House.  Somewhat  in  the  spirit  of  Clodion,  but  more  sensu- 
ous and  Rubens-like,  is  his  Triumph  of  Flora;  and  full  of 


MODERN   SCULPTURE   IN   FRANCE. 


265 


abandon,  his  Four  Quarters  of  the  Earth  supporting  the  World 
in  the  Luxembourg  Gardens. 

Emmanuel  Fr6miet  (b.  1824),  like  his  uncle,  Rude,  in  his- 
torical bent,  and  like 
Barye  in  his  devotion 
to  animals,  excels  in 
monumental  works  such 
as  Louis  d'Orleans  and 
Jeanne  d'Arc,  and  also 
in  such  genre  subjects 
as  a  Wounded  Dog,  and 
a  Gorilla  carrying  off  a 
Woman.  Auguste  Cain, 
more  exclusively  a  fol- 
lower of  Barye,  has  de- 
voted himself  to  animal 
sculpture.  His  Rhi- 
noceros attacked  by 
Lions  and  Tigers  is  in 
the  Garden  of  the  Tui- 
leries,  and  his  Tigress 
with  her  Cubs,  in  the 
Central  Park,  New 
York.  Jules  Dalou 
(b.  1838),  in  his  reliefs 
of  Silenus  and  the 
Nymphs,  in  the  South 
Kensington  Museum, 
and  in  his  Sevres  Vase, 
in  the  Luxembourg, 
shows  himself  a  more 
refined  Carpeaux.  His  masterpiece  is  in  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties, and  represents  the  L'tats  Generauxof  1789,  with  Mirabeau 
delivering  his  famous  address  before  the  Marquis  de  Dreux 
Bre"ze.  It  is  a  dramatic  composition  full  of  historic  realism. 


FIG.    104.— JOHN   THE    BAPTIST   (BV    RODIN). 
LUXEMBOURG,    PARIS. 


266  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

Auguste  Rodin  (b.  1840)  is  still  further  removed  from  the 
academic  school.  He  draws  his  inspiration  from  nature,  aim- 
ing at  true  expression  without  regard  to  elegance  of  form. 
His  John  the  Baptist,  in  the  Luxembourg — a  replica  of  the 
head  is  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York — is  a  natu- 
ralistic presentation  of  an  ill-fed  prophet.  But  Rodin's  nat- 
uralism does  not  yet  observe  historic  conditions.  His  John 
the  Baptist  is  a  Frenchman.  This  limitation  of  range  makes 
his  Bourgeois  de  Calais,  and  his  busts  of  Victor  Hugo  and  of 
Dalou,  more  satisfactory  works  of  art.  In  his  modelling,  Rodin 
continues  the  broad  style  of  Barye. 

Of  the  younger  sculptors,  great  talent  has  been  shown  by 
Bartholom6,  especially  in  funerary  sculpture.  His  project  for 
the  entrance  of  a  tomb,  exhibited  in  1892,  and  again  in  greater 
completeness  in  1895,  is  remarkable  not  only  for  its  original- 
ity, but  also  for  its  significance  and  naturalistic  character. 

The  democratic  spirit  of  modetn  times  has  so  widened  the 
area  of  sculpture  that  much  that  is  frivolous  and  insignificant 
and  meretricious  is  produced  in  the  name  of  art ;  but  signifi- 
cant, beautiful,  and  truthful  expression  is  to-day  in  France 
carried  further  than  in  the  sculpture  of  any  country  of  the 
world.  In  fact,  the  sculpture  of  France  surpasses  both  her 
architecture  and  her  painting.  . 

EXTANT  MONUMENTS.  The  museums  of  the  Luxembourg  and  of  the 
Louvre,  in  Paris,  contain  collections  of  modern  French  sculpture.  A 
special  collection  for  David  d'Angers  is  in  the  museum  at  Angers,  and  of 
Barye  bronzes  in  the  Corcoran  Art  Gallery  at  Washington.  The  most 
important  sculptures  are  usually  first  exhibited  in  model,  or  finished,  at  the 
annual  Salons,  at  special  exhibitions,  or  at  World's  Fairs. 


CHAPTER   XXVI. 
MODERN   SCULPTURE   IN    ENGLAND. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  Dafforne,  Gallery  of  Modern  Sculp- 
ture. Holland,  Memorials  of  Sir  Francis  Chantrey.  Lady 
East  lake,  Life  of  John  Gibson.  Redgrave,  Dictionary  of  Artists 
of  the  English  School.  Stephen,  Dictionary  of  National  Biog- 
raphy. The  Art  Journal.  The  Magazine  of  Art. 

THE  CLASSICAL  SCHOOL.  In  England  the  churches,  public 
squares,  and  private  houses  have  continued  a  demand  for 
monumental  and  portrait  sculpture.  The  classic  revival  has 
made  itself  felt  in  English  sculpture  as  well  as  in  literature ; 
and  to  offset  this,  the  scientific  reaction  has  produced  a  strong 
school  of  naturalistic  sculptors.  The  classical  movement  of 
the  nineteenth  century  was  almost  the  beginning  of  sculpture 
in  England.  Never  before  had  she  produced  a  succession  of 
able  sculptors  like  Westmacott  and  Chantrey,  Bailey  and  Gib- 
son, and  the  minor  lights  who  surrounded  them. 

Sir  Richard  Westmacott  (1775-1856)  showed  himself  the 
artistic  successor  of  Flaxman  in  a  relief  entitled  the  Blue  Bell, 
and  in  his  statues  of  Psyche,  Cupid,  and  Euphrosyne.  He  is 
to  be  remembered,  too,  for  the  pedimental  sculptures  of  the 
British  Museum  and  the  monuments  of  Pitt  and  Fox  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  He  also  represented  the  Duke  of  Wellington 
as  Achilles. 

Sir  Francis  Legatt  Chantrey  (1781-1842),  although  the 
friend  of  Canova,  and  influenced  by  Thorwaldsen,  rarely 
attempted  ideal  themes.  His  works  have  the  charm  of  tender 
sentiment,  as  in  the  Sleeping  Children,  at  Lichfield  Cathe- 


268 


HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 


dral,  or  the  Resignation,  at  Worcester  Cathedral.  His  busts 
and  statues  were  simple,  refined,  and  technically  excellent. 
Of  his  monumental  works  may  be  mentioned  the  statue  of 
Canning  in  Liverpool,  the  equestrian  George  IV.  in  Trafalgar 


FIG.    JOS. — PAULINE    BONAPARTE    (BY   THOMAS   CAMPBELL).      CHATSWOKTH,    ENGLAND. 

Square,  and  the  Duke  of  Wellington   in  front  of  the  Royal 
Exchange,  London. 

Edward  Hodges  Bailey  (1788-1867),  a  pupil  of  Flaxman, 
combined  religious  with  classic  sentiment  in  his  statues  of 
Eve  at  the  Fountain,  and  Eve  listening  to  the  Voice.  He 
designed  the  statue  of  Nelson  for  the  Nelson  monument  in 
Trafalgar  Square. 


MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  ENGLAND.      269 

John  Gibson  (1790-1866)  was  the  most  thorough  classicist 
of  the  English  school.  He  worked  under  Canova  and  Thor- 
waldsen,  and  resided  for  a  long  time  in  Rome.  His  first 
original  work,  The  Sleeping  Shepherd,  was  followed  by  Mars 
and  Cupid,  Psyche  borne  by  Zephyrs,  Meeting  of  Hero  and 
Leander,  Hylas  surprised  by  Nymphs,  Cupid  tormenting  the 
Soul,  and  Narcissus.  His  Queen  Victoria  was  robed  in  classic 
drapery.  During  the  forties  he  startled  the  English  public 
with  his  Tinted  Venus,  and  justified  the  coloring  of  his  statue 
by  the  remark  that  "  what  the  Greeks  did  was  right."  He 
gave  many  years  to  the  perfection  of  this  statue,  and  said  of 
it :  "  This  is  the  most  carefully  executed  work  I  ever  executed, 
for  I  wrought  the  forms  up  to  the  highest  elevation  of  char- 
acter, which  results  from  purity  and  sweetness  combined  with 
an  air  of  unaffected  dignity  and  grace.  I  took  the  liberty  to 
decorate  it  in  a  fashion  unprecedented  in  modern  times.  I 
tinted  the  flesh  warm  ivory,  scarcely  red,  the  eyes  blue,  the 
hair  blond,  and  the  net  which  contains  the  hair,  golden." 

Other  classicists  worthy  of  mention  were  William  Theed 
(1764-1817),  William  Pitts  (1790-1840),  Thomas  Campbell 
(1790-1858),  Richard  John  Wyatt  (1795-1858),  Patrick 
McDowell  (1799-1870),  and  Joseph  Durham  (1814-1877). 
More  strictly  portrait  sculptors  were  their  contemporaries. 
William  Behnes  (1790-1864),  Thomas  Kirk  (1784-1845),  and 
John  E.  Jones  (1806-1862). 

THE  REACTION  AGAINST  THE  CLASSIC  STYLE.  The  reaction 
against  the  classic  style  had  attained  considerable  strength  by 
the  middle  of  this  century.  Sculptors  like  Stevens,  Foley, 
Boehm,  Woolner,  and  Armstead  looked  to  the  past  for  inspira- 
tion, but  to  the  Italian  Renaissance  rather  than  to  Greece  and 
Rome. 

Alfred  George  Stevens  (1817-1875)  was  a  pupil  of  Thor- 
waldsen,  but  received  a  greater  bias  from  the  works  of  Michel- 
angelo than  from  his  master.  The  freedom  and  breadth  of 
his  decorative  work  exerted  a  considerable  influence  upon 


2/0 


HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 


English  industrial  art,  and  his  Duke  of  Wellington  monument 
in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  though  still  unfinished,  brought  new 
life  into  English  sculpture.  England  may  well  point  with 
pride  to  the  powerful  groups  of  Valor  triumphing  over  Cow- 
ardice and  of  Truth  pulling  out  the  Tongue  of  Falsehood 

which  decorate  the 
canopy  under  which  re- 
poses the  effigy  of  the 
Duke. 

John  Henry  Foley 
(  1818-1874  )  in  his 
earlier  works,  such  as 
Juno  and  the  Infant 
Bacchus,  and  Venus  re- 
ceiving ^E  n  e  a  s  from 
Diomedes,  showed  his 
indebtedness  to  the  older 
school  of  sculptors,  but 
his  busts  and  portrait 
statues  of  Goldsmith, 
Burke,  Selden,  Hamp- 
den,  and  others  brought 
out  more  strongly  his 
naturalistic  bent.  He 
was  the  author  of  the 
group  of  Asia,  and  of 
the  Prince  Consort,  on 
the  Albert  Memorial  in 
Hyde  Park,  London,  but 
his  chef-d'oeuvre  was  the 
vigorous  equestrian  statue  of  General  Sir  James  Outram,  in 
Calcutta.  One  of  his  latest  works  was  the  statue  of  General 
"  Stonewall  "  Jackson,  in  Richmond,  Va.  Sir  Joseph.  Edgar 
Boehm  (1834-1891),  though  born  in  Vienna  and  trained  in 
Paris,  became  a  representative  English  sculptor,  especially  in 


FIG.     106.— LORD     BEACONSFIELD. 
ABBEY,    LONDON. 


WESTMINSTER 


MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  ENGLAND.      2/1 

portrait  statues.  Among  the  best  of  these  are  his  Thomas 
Carlyle,  at  Chelsea,  his  John  Bunyan,  at  Bedford,  his  busts  of 
Lord  Wolseley  and  Herbert  Spencer,  and  the  tomb  statues  of 
Dean  Stanley  and  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  in  Westminster. 

Thomas  Woollier  (1825-1893)  exhibited  the  spirit  of 
romanticism  in  his  early  works,  such  as  Eleanora  sucking 
Poison  from  the  Wound  of  Prince  Edward,  the  Death  of  Boa- 
dicea,  and  Puck.  After  the  foundation  of  the  Pre-Raphaelite 
Brotherhood  in  1848,  of  which  he  was  an  original  member, 
he  exhibited  in  some  of  his  works,  as  in  the  Achilles  shouting 
from  the  Trenches,  the  early  Italian  Renaissance  tendency  of 
that  school.  A  refined  sentiment  characterized  his  busts,  por- 
trait statues,  and  medallions,  such  as  those  of  Tennyson,  Car- 
lyle, Wordsworth,  Macaulay,  Dickens,  and  Darwin.  His  last 
important  work,  The  Housemaid,  was  a  romantic  treatment  of 
a  theme  more  likely  to  have  been  chosen  by  a  more  natural- 
istic sculptor. 

Other  sculptors  representing  tendencies  similar  to  Wool- 
ner's  were  James  F.  Redfern  (1838-1876),  whose  work  was  in 
demand  for  Gothic  churches  and  for  the  restoration  of 
ancient  Gothic  sculptures;  Lord  Ronald  Gower,  who  was  influ- 
enced by  French  sculpture  of  the  thirteenth  century;  and 
Henry  Hugh  Armstead  (b.  1828),  who  exhibits  a  wide  range  of 
subjects,  styles,  and  methods.  Matthew  Noble  (1818-1876) 
and  Charles  B.  Birch  were  inclined  to  romantic  methods  even 
in  portraiture,  and  George  Tinworth  in  his  terracotta  reliefs 
strove  to  be  naturalistic  in  following  the  style  of  Giotto. 
Thomas  Brock  (b.  1847),  the  pupil  of  Foley,  in  all  his  early 
works  followed  in  the  line  of  his  master.  T.  Nelson  Maclean, 
notwithstanding  his  training  in  Paris,  and  George  A.  Lawson 
may  be  classed  with  this  transitional  school. 

LATEST  PHASE  OF  ENGLISH  SCTJLPTTTBE.  The  latest  school 
of  English  sculpture  exhibits  greater  originality  and  technical 
ability  than  were  attained  by  its  predecessors.  This  school 
is  poetic  in  temperament,  but  selects  frequently  naturalistic 


2/2 


HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 


and  democratic  themes.     Its  technical  ideal  is  no  longer  the 
beauty  of    linear   form,   but   of    expressive    modelling.      Its 

teacher  is  neither  Rome 
nor  Florence,  but  Paris. 
The  sculptural  proto- 
types of  this  school  are 
the  Clytie  produced  in 
1868  by  George  Fred- 
erick Watts  (b.  1818), 
and  the  Athlete  stran- 
gling a  Python  exhibited 
in  1877  by  Sir  Frederick 
Leighton  (1830-1896). 
It  is  noteworthy  that 
these  works  came  from 
the  hands  of  painters, 
and  were  characterized 
not  merely  by  novelty  of 
conception  but  by  the 
expressive  manner  in 
which  the  surfaces  w^re 
modelled.  Sir  Fred- 
erick's subsequent  statue 
of  the  Sluggard,  and  his 
statuette  entitled  Need- 
less Alarms,  won  for  him 
a  relatively  more  ad- 
vanced position  than 
that  which  he  enjoyed 
as  a  painter. 

Three  sculptors  stand 
at  the  head  of  their  pro- 
fession in  England  at  the  present  day :  Thornycroft,  Onslow 
Ford,  and  Gilbert.  Hamo  Thornycroft  (1850-)  in  his  earliest 
work,  the  Warrior  carrying  a  Wounded  Youth  from  Battle,  re- 


FIG.    107. — DANCING    (BY   ONSLOW   FORD). 


MODERN   SCULPTURE   IN    ENGLAND.  273 

minds  us  somewhat  of  David  d' Angers  and  of  Rude.  His  skill 
in  surface-modelling  was  shown  in  his  Artemis  and  in  his  remark- 
able statue  called  Putting  the  Stone.  His  Teucer,  admirable 
for  the  same  quality,  has  a  style  abput  it  which  makes  us  think 
of  Paul  Dubois,  while  his  subsequent  statues  of  the  Mower 
and  the  Sower  are  suggestive  of  the  peasant  painters  of  the 
Barbizon  school.  But  the  spirit  which  animates  these  works 
is  not  French,  but  English. 

E.  Onslow  Ford  (1852-1901),  though  trained  as  a  painter  at 
Antwerp  and  Munich,  has  worked  as  a  sculptor  since  the  exhi- 
bition in  1883  of  his  statue  of  Henry  Irving  as  Hamlet. 
This  was  followed  by  poetical  productions  such  as  Linos, 
Folly,  Peace,  the  Singer,  Music,  and  Dancing.  These  statues, 
as  well  as  his  most  important  production,  the  Shelley  Memo- 
rial at  Oxford,  are  characterized  by  beauty  of  form  and  senti- 
ment even  more  strongly  than  by  their  expressive  modelling. 

Alfred  Gilbert  (1854-)  in  his  Kiss  of  Victory,  exhibited 
in  1882,  seems  to  have  been  inspired  by  the  Gloria  Victis  of 
Mercie".  The  influence  of  Mercie1  is  perceptible  also  in  his 
Perseus  applying  his  Winglets.  His  Icarus,  made  in  1884, 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  bronze  of  importance  cast  by 
the  cire perdue  process  in  England.  His  most  elaborate  work 
is  the  memorial  to  Henry  Fawcett  in  Westminster  Abbey,  in 
which  a  frieze  of  variously  colored  bronze  figures  flanks  the 
bust  of  the  statesman.  Refined  in  its  details,  but  not  altogether 
successful  in  its  general  mass,  is  the  Shaftesbury  Memorial 
Fountain  in  Piccadilly  Circus. 

Outside  of  this  distinguished  trio  may  be  mentioned  Harry 
Bates,  who  has  produced  several  excellent  reliefs;  Roscoe 
Mullins,  who  is  perhaps  too  much  inclined  to  story-telling  in 
statuary ;  George  J.  Frampton,  a  versatile  and  especially  clever 
sculptor  in  the  use  of  delicate  relief;  Henry  A.  Pegram,  who 
has  applied  a  pictorial  method  to  high-reliefs;  W.  Goscombe 
John  and  T.  Stirling  Lee,  realistic  representatives  of  the  new 
school ;  Robert  Stark  and  John  M.  Swan,  sculptors  of  animals  j 
18 


2/4  HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 

and  Frederick  Pomeroy,  an  excellent  sculptor  of  statuettes. 
Some  talent  is  also  shown  in  the  works  of  Alfred  Drury,  F.  E. 
E.  Schenck,  Adrien  Jones,  Allen  Hutchinson,  A.  Toft,  and  H. 
C.  Fehr. 

EXTANT  MONUMENTS.  The  exhibitions  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and 
of  the  Grosvenor  and  the  New  Gallery,  afford  annually  an  opportunity  of 
studying  the  most  recent  productions  before  they  are  scattered  in  the 
churches,  civic  buildings,  public  squares,  and  private  collections. 


CHAPTER   XXVII. 

MODERN   SCULPTURE   IN    AMERICA. 

BOOKS  RECOMMENDED.  Benjamin,  Contemporary  Art  in 
America.  Century  Magazine.  Clark,  Great  American  Sculp- 
tors. Clement  and  Hutton,  Artists  of  the  Nineteenth  Century. 
Dunlap,  The  Arts  of  Design  in  the  United  States.  Lee,  Familiar 
Sketches  of  Sculpture  and  Sculptors.  Tuckerman,  Book  of  the 
Artists. 

EARLY  ATTEMPTS.  Sculpture  in  America,  if  we  except  the 
works  of  native  Indians  and  of  the  Aztecs,  Mayas  and  Incas, 
as  not  properly  within  the  scope  of  this  volume,  is  the  pro- 
duct of  the  present  century.  During  the  eighteenth  century  we 
know  only  of  a  Mrs.  Patience  Wright  (1725-1785),  of  Borden- 
town,  N.  J.,  who  was  skilful  enough  in  the  execution  of  wax 
figures  to  have  her  wax  statue  of  Lord  Chatham  admitted  to 
Westminster  Abbey,  and  John  Dixey,  an  Irishman  who  came  to 
America  from  Italy  in  1789,  and  made  the  figures  of  Justice  for 
the  City  Hall,  New  York,  and  the  State  House,  Albany.  An 
ardent  Italian  Republican,  Giuseppe  Cerrachi,  came  to  this 
country  in  1791  with  the  design  for  an  elaborate  monument  to 
Liberty.  It  is  thus  described  :  "  The  Goddess  of  Liberty  is 
represented  descending  in  a  car  drawn  by  four  horses,  darting 
through  a  volume  of  clouds  which  conceals  the  summit  of  a 
rainbow.  Her  form  is  at  once  expressive  of  dignity  and  peace. 
In  her  right  hand  she  brandishes  a  flaming  dart,  which,  by  dis- 
pelling the  mists  of  error,  illuminates  the  universe;  her  left  is 
extended  in  the  attitude  of  calling  upon  the  people  of  America 
to  listen  to  her  voice."  Although  Washington  headed  the 


2/6 


HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 


subscription  for  the  monument,  the  money  was  not  raised,  and 
thus  we  escaped  a  Berninesque  foundation  in  the  history  of 
American  sculpture.  Cerrachi  left  behind  him  excellent  busts 
of  Washington,  Hamilton,  Clinton,  Paul  Jones,  and  John  Jay. 
The  distinguished  French  sculptor,  Houdon,  visited  the 

United  States  in  1785, 
but  remained  too  short  a 
time  to  leave  a  perma- 
nent impress.  William 
Rush  (1757-1833),  of 
Philadelphia,  carved  hi 
wood  and  modelled  in 
clay,  self-taught.  His 
bust  of  Washington  is 
in  the  Pennsylvania 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts, 
and  his  wooden  Water 
Nymph,  now  transferred 
to  bronze,  decorates 
Fairmount  Park  i n 
Philadelphia.  Another 
pioneer,  John  Frazee 
(1790-1 85  2),  of  Rah  way, 
N.  J.,  who  had  never 
seen  a  marble  statue 
until  1820,  made  a  bust 
of  John  Wells  for  Grace 
Church,  New  York. 
This  is  recorded  by  Dun- 
lap  as  the  first  marble  portrait  made  by  a  native  American 
sculptor.  He  also  made  busts  of  Daniel  Webster,  John  Jay, 
Judge  Prescott,  Hon.  John  Lowell,  Chief  Justice  Marshall,  and 
others. 

THE  CLASSICAL  SCHOOL.     The  foundations  of  American  sculp- 
ture are  to  be  found   in  the  classical   school   of  Canova  and 


FIG.  108.  — WASHINGTON  AS  OLYMPIAN  ZEUS  (BY 
GREENOUGH).     WASHINGTON. 


MODERN   SCULPTURE   IN  AMERICA.  2.77 

Thorwaldsen.  This  was  the  school  that  shaped  the  energies 
of  Greenough,  Powers,  Crawford,  Browne,  Story,  Ball,  Ran- 
dolph Rogers,  Rinehart,  and  Harriet  Hosmer. 

Horatio  Greenough  (1805-1852),  an  accomplished  and 
scholarly  Bostonian,  led  American  sculptors  to  Rome.  In  the 
spirit  of  Thorwaldsen  he  remarked  :  "  I  began  to  study  art  in 
Rome  ;  until  then  I  had  rather  amused  myself  with  clay  and 
marble."  His  Chanting  Cherubs,  the  first  marble  group  by  an 
American  sculptor,  was  also  a  challenge  to  the  American  pre- 
judice against  the  nude,  and  paved  the  way  for  his  statues  of 
Venus  Victrix  and  of  Abel.  His  dignified  statue  of  Washing- 
ton, conceived  as  an  Olympian  Zeus,  was  greeted  with  some 
intolerance  by  his  countrymen.  More  thoroughly  national  in 
spirit  was  his  group  The  Rescue,  representing  a  settler  rescu- 
ing a  woman  and  child  from  a  savage  Indian.  Refined  and 
excellent  were  his  busts  of  Washington,  Lafayette,  John  Quincy 
Adams,  and  Fenimore  Cooper.  Hiram  Powers  (1805-1873), 
of  Vermont,  after  having  made  realistic  wax  figures  in  Cincin- 
nati, took  up  his  residence  in  Italy.  He  was  ingenious  and 
independent  rather  than  original,  and  won  recognition  by 
faithfu),  honest  work.  There  was  a  touch  of  tender  melan- 
choly in  his  Eve  Disconsolate,  the  Last  of  the  Tribe,  and  in  his 
Greek  Slave.  When  the  last-named  statue  was  first  exhibited 
in  Cincinnati,  a  delegation  of  clergymen  was  sent  to  judge 
whether  it  were  fit  to  be  seen  by  Christian  people.  Its  purity 
of  sentiment  and  harmonious  form  established  its  right  to 
exist,  and  he  made  six  replicas  of  it.  His  bust  of  Edward 
Everett,  at  Chatsworth,  was  admirable.  Hardly  inferior  to 
this  were  his  busts  and  statues  of  Franklin,  Adams,  Jefferson, 
Van  Buren,  Webster,  and  Calhoun. 

Thomas  Crawford  (1813-1857),  more  gifted  and  original 
than  Powers,  studied  in  Italy  under  Thorwaldsen.  His  earliest 
work,  the  Orpheus  in  Search  of  Eurydice,  seems  to  have  been 
inspired  by  his  study  of  the  Niobe  group  in  Florence ;  and  his 
latest,  the  bronze  door  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  by  Ghi- 


278 


HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 


berti's  baptistery  gates.  His  colossal  Liberty  for  the  dome  of 
the  Capitol  was  conceived  in  the  classical  spirit,  but  the 
romanticism  peculiar  to  America  shows  itself  in  the  pedi- 

mental  group  at  Washington 
of  the  Indian  mourning  over 
the  Decay  of  his  Race,  and 
in  the  Indian  Chief,  in  the 
New  York  Historical  Society 
Collection.  His  Beethoven 
in  the  Music  Hall,  Boston, 
and  his  equestrian  statue  of 
Washington,  at  Richmond, 
both  in  bronze,  were  cast  in 
Munich.  Ball  Hughes  is 
credited  with  having  made 
the  first  statue  cast  in 
bronze  in  this  country. 
This  is  the  monument  of 
Dr.  Bowditch,  in  Mount 
Auburn  Cemetery.  His 
marble  statue  of  Alex- 
ander Hamilton,  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1835,  is  similarly 
credited  as  one  of  the  first 
marble  statues  carved  by  an 
American  sculptor.  Henry 
Kirke  Brown  (1814-1886), 
though  he  went  early  to 
Italy,  was  not  a  classicist 
in  spirit.  He  felt  strongly 
that  American  art  should 
treat  of  American  subjects. 
His  best  energies  were  devoted  to  the  equestrian  statue  of 
Washington,  in  Union  Square,  New  York,  which  was  cast  at 
Chicopee,  Massachusetts,  and  set  up  in  1856.  Even  more 


FIG.  109. — THE  GREEK  SLAVE  (BY  POWERS). 
OWNED  BY  DUKE  OF  CLEVELAND,  ENG- 
LAND. REPLICA  IN  BOSTON  MUSEUM. 


MODERN   SCULPTURE   IN  AMERICA.  279 

successful  is  his  equestrian  statue  of  General  Scott,  in  Wash- 
ington. 

Erastus  Dow  Palmer  (1817-)  evinced  the  spirit  of  lyric 
poetry  in  his  idealistic  sculpture.  He  treated  such  subjects 
as  the  Infant  Ceres,  the  Sleeping  Peri,  the  Spirit's  Flight, 
Resignation,  Spring,  the  Angel  of  the  Sepulchre.  His  Indian 
Girl,  representative  of  the  dawn  of  civilization,  and  his  White 
Captive,  suggestive  of  the  dangers  encountered  by  pioneer  life, 
were  universally  popular.  William  Wetmore  Story  (1819- 
1896),  an  accomplished  writer  as  well  as  sculptor,  has  produced 
a  series  of  cold,  correct,  pedantic  statues,  such  as  the  Cleo- 
patra, Semiramis,  Medea,  and  Polyxena  of  the  Metropolitan 
Museum,  New  York.  In  these  works  the  classical  spirit  is 
already  waning,  and  the  American  not  at  all  apparent. 
Thomas  Ball  (b.  1819),  less  accomplished  than  Story,  has  long 
lived  in  Florence,  without  losing  his  Americanism.  He  pro- 
duced a  few  ideal  works,  such  as  a  statue  of  Pandora  and  a  bust 
of  Truth,  but  was  more  successful  in  historic  and  portrait 
sculpture,  as  in  his  faithful  equestrian  statue  of  Washington,  in 
the  Boston  Public  Garden,  and  in  his  Daniel  Webster,  in  Cen- 
tral Park,  New  York.  Randolph.  Rogers  (1825-1892),  of  Vir- 
ginia, learned  his  art  in  Rome.  His  Nydia,  the  Blind  Girl 
of  Pompeii,  a  figure  of  somewhat  labored  gracefulness,  enjoyed 
a  wide  popularity.  His  bronze  doors  for  the  Capitol  at  Wash- 
ington illustrated  the  Life  of  Columbus.  He  made  a  colossal 
America  for  Providence,  R.  I.,  and  a  figure  representing  the 
State  of  Michigan  for  Detroit. 

Two  of  the  most  thorough  classicists  among  American  sculp- 
tors have  been  Rinehart  and  Harriet  Hosmer.  William  Henry 
Rinehart  (1825-1874)  may  be  best  studied  in  the  Rinehart 
Museum  of  the  Peabody  Institute,  Baltimore,  though  the  Metro- 
politan Museum,  New  York,  and  the  Corcoran  Gallery,  Wash- 
ington, contain  a  number  of  his  works.  His  Clytie,  in  Balti- 
more, may  well  be  classed  with  Power's  Greek  Slave,  and  his 
seated  statue  of  Chief  Justice  Taney,  at  Annapolis  (and  its 


280 


HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE. 


replica  in  Mount  Vernon  Square,  Baltimore),  is  one  of  the  most 
successful  public  monuments  in  the  country.  He  left  a  fund 
which  has  recently  become  available  and  is  to  be  devoted 
to  the  education  of  sculptors  in  Rome. 

Miss  Harriet  Hosmer 
(b.  1831)  became  the 
favorite  pupil  of  the 
English  sculptor  Gib- 
son in  Rome.  With 
masculine  vigor,  she 
produced  a  series  of 
statues  such  as  Hesper, 
CE  n  o  n  e  ,  Puck,  the 
Sleeping  Faun,  Ze- 
nobia,  and  Beatrice 
Cenci,  and  busts  of 
Daphne  and  Medusa. 
She  was  the  last  repre- 
sentative of  the  classic 
school. 

Other  American 
sculptors,  who  flour- 
ished before  the  Cen- 
tennial Exhibition  in 
1876,  were  Henry 
Dexter  (b.  1806),  Joel 
T.  Hart  (1810-1877), 
Shobal  Vail  Clevinger 
( 1812-1843  ),  Joseph 
Mozier  (1812-1870), 
Edward  Sheffield  Bar- 
tholomew (1822  1858),  Benjamin  Paul  Akers  (1825-1861),  J. 
A.  Jackson  (1825-1879),  Thomas  R.  Gould  (1825-1881),  John 
Rogers,  C.  B.  Ives,  Henry  J.  Haseltine,  Edward  Augustus 
Brackett,  Lauut  Thompson,  Mrs.  Dubois,  Margaret  Foley, 


FIG.  IIO. — BRONZE  RELIEF  OF  PRESIDENT  MoCOSH 
(BY  AUGUSTUS  ST.  GAUDENS).  PRINCETON  UNI- 
VERSITY CHAPEL. 


MODERN   SCULPTURE   IN   AMERICA.  28 1 

Emma  Stebbins,  Edmonia  Lewis,  Vinnie  Reams,  and  Blanche 
Nevin.  These  sculptors  by  no  means  confined  themselves  to 
classical  themes.  Biblical  subjects  frequently  occupied  their 
attention,  and  also  contemporary  portraiture.  John  Rogers 
devoted  himself  to  genre  subjects,  and  produced  an  immense 
number  of  statuettes,  many  of  which,  inspired  by  the  late  Civil 
War,  enjoyed  a  wide  but  short-lived  popularity. 

CONTEMPORARY  AMERICAN  SCULPTORS.  During  the  last 
quarter  of  a  century  the  influence  of  Italy  has  been  slight 
upon  American  sculpture,  and  the  classic  tradition  of  Rome 
has  been  declining.  Preston  and  Longworth  Powers,  sons  of 
Hiram  Powers,  and  Waldo  Story,  son  of  W.  W.  Story,  carry  on 
the  conceptions  of  their  fathers.  William  Couper,  of  Florence, 
has  done  some  charming  work,  especially  in  relief,  but  has  not 
yet  attained  the  position  of  his  father-in-law,  Thomas  Ball. 
Louis  T.  Rebisso  (1837-),  of  Genoa,  though  a  professor  of 
sculpture  for  more  than  thirty  years,  has  not  been  influential 
in  directing  American  art. 

Nor  has  Germany,  in  spite  of  the  number  of  her  colonists  in 
this  country  and  the  fame  of  her  schools  of  art,  made  any 
lasting  impress  upon  American  sculpture.  Moses  Jacob  Ezekiel 
(1844-),  of  Richmond,  Va.,  received  his  early  training  in 
Berlin,  and  his  marble  group  of  Religious  Liberty,  in  Fair- 
mount  Park,  Philadelphia,  is  thoroughly  German  in  character. 
But  since  1874  he  has  resided  in  Rome,  and  his  Eve,  Pan 
and  Amor,  Mercury,  and  other  statues  are  more  Italian  than 
either  American  or  German.  Ephraim  Keyser  (1850-),  of 
Baltimore,  was  educated  in  Munich  and  Berlin.  His  statu- 
ette, the  Toying  Page,  shows  his  German  training,  as  does  also 
his  statue  of  Psyche.  But  full  of  character  and  refinement  are 
his  portrait  busts  made  since  his  return  to  America. 

An  American  of  the  sturdy  type,  little  moved  by  foreign 
influence,  is  the  President  of  the  National  Sculpture  Society, 
John  Quincy  Adams  Ward  (1830-).  Trained  by  H.  K. 
Brown,  Ward  treated  with  success  such  subjects  as  the  Indian 


282  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

Hunter,  The  Freedman,  The  Pilgrim,  The  Private  of  the 
Seventh  Regiment.  His  masterpiece  is  the  noble  statue  of 
Henry  Ward  Beecher,  in  Brooklyn. 

It  is  to  Paris  that  the  younger  contemporary  sculptors  have 
looked  for  technical  training  and  for  inspiration.  Paris  has 
vitalized  and  transformed  American  sculpture  as  thoroughly  as 
did  Italy  in  the  first  half  of  the  century.  Like  a  fresh  breeze 


FIG.    III. — DEATH    AND    THE    SCULPTOR    (BY   D.    C.    FRENCH).       FROM    A   CAST  IN   CHICAGO 
ART  INSTITUTE. 

upon  calm  waters  was  the  statue  called  La  Premiere  Pose, 
exhibited  by  Howard  Roberts  (1845-),  in  tne  Centennial 
Exhibition  of  1876.  Sentiment  and  expressive  modelling  here 
replaced  the  beauty  of  mere  external  form.  But,  unfortunately, 
the  sentiment  of  Roberts  was  not  strong  enough  to  carry  him 
beyond  the  romantic  stage  in  which  he  produced  statues  and 
statuettes  of  Lucille,  Hypatia,  Hester  Prynne,  and  Lot's  Wife. 


MODERN   SCULPTURE   IN   AMERICA.  283 

Olin  Levi  Warner  (1844-1896),  an  American  refined  by  Pari- 
sian training,  has  shown  himself  capable  of  producing  strong, 
characteristic  busts,  as  those,  for  example,  of  Daniel  Cottier 
and  of  J.  Alden  Weir,  and  significant  portrait  statues,  such  as 
those  of  Governor  Buckingham  of  Connecticut,  and  of  William 
Lloyd  Garrison,  in  Commonwealth  Avenue,  Boston.  He  has 
also  made  charming  female  heads,  like  that  of  Miss  Maud 
Morgan,  and  graceful  figures,  such  as  his  statue  of  Twilight. 
His  fountain  at  Portland,  Oregon,  should  be  reckoned  as  a 
classic  production  of  modern  American  sculpture.  Excellent, 
also,  is  his  work  in  high-relief,  such  as  the  head  of  Arnold 
Guyot  in  the  chapel  of  Princeton  University,  and  the  medal- 
lions of  Michelangelo,  Raphael,  Titian,  Velasquez,  and  Rem- 
brandt on  the  entablature  of  the  Columbian  Museum,  Chicago. 

Augustus  St.  Gaudens  (1848-1907),  of  New  York,  trained  like 
Warner  in  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  has  been  a  powerful 
factor  in  bringing  American  sculpture  to  its  present  state  of 
excellence.  In  both  of  these  sculptors  there  is  something  of 
the  Greek,  as  distinguished  from  the  Graeco-Roman  spirit, 
Warner  possessing  the  more  Doric  and  St.  Gaudens  the  more 
Ionic  temperament.  The  low-reliefs  of  the  sons  of  Prescott 
Hall  Butler,  by  St.  Gaudens,  are  especially  charming.  The 
caryatids  for  the  mantelpiece  in  the  house  of  Cornelius  Van- 
derbilt  in  New  York,  and  the  angels  for  the  tomb  of  Governor 
E.  D.  Morgan,  the  models  of  which  were  unfortunately  de- 
stroyed by  fire,  partake  also  of  Ionic  grace.  The  same  charm 
penetrates  the  wall-relief  of  Dr.  Bellows  in  All  Souls'  Church, 
New  York,  and  the  more  vigorous  relief  of  President  McCosh 
in  the  Princeton  University  Chapel.  But  the  power  of  St. 
Gaudens  is  not  the  capacity  of  throwing  an  external  charm  about 
his  productions,  he  is  strong  also  in  the  expression  of  indi- 
vidual character,  as  we  may  see  in  his  excellent  statue  of 
Admiral  Farragut  in  Madison  Square,  New  York;  in  the  Lin- 
coln statue  in  Lincoln  Park,  Chicago;  in  the  statue  of  Deacon 
Chapin,  called  the  Puritan,  in  Springfield,  Mass. ;  and  in  the 


284 


HISTORY    OF    SCULPTURE. 


high-relief  of  Colonel  Shaw  which  has  just  been  completed  for 
Boston.  Since  its  erection  in  1897  the  Shaw  Memorial  has 
steadily  gained  in  popular  estimation.  Two  works,  however, 

show  St.  Gaudens 
at  his  best.  The 
majestic  figure  of 
Grief,  a  memorial 
to  a  Mrs.  Adams 
in  the  Rock  Creek 
Cemetery  at  Wash- 
ington, ranks  with 
the  greatest  of  sym- 
bolic statues.  His 
maturest  work,  the 
Sherman  statue  at 
the  entrance  to 
Central  Park,  New 
York,  will  stand 
comparison  with 
the  finest  eques- 
trian statues  in  the 
whole  history  of 
sculpture. 

Daniel  Chester 
French  (1850— ),  of 
New  Hampshire , 
early  attracted  at- 
tention by  his 
bronze  statue  of 
The  Minute  Man 
at  Concord,  Mass., 
unveiled  in  1875.  After  having  passed  through  a  period  of 
bread-winning  production,  French  has  risen  to  a  high  rank 
among  American  sculptors  in  his  colossal  statue  of  The 


FIG.     112. — NATHAN     HALE     (BY     MACMONNIES).        CITY 
HALL    PARK,    NEW    YORK. 


MODERN    SCULPTURE    IN    AMERICA. 


285 


Republic  for  the  Columbian  Exhibition,  in  his  remarkable 
relief  of  Death  and  the  Sculptor,  and  his  group  of  Gallaudet 
teaching  a  Deaf  Mute.  His  statue  of  General  Cass,  his  reliefs 
of  angels  for  the  Clark  Memorial,  and  his  John  Boyle  O'Reilley 
Memorial  group  are 
works  of  decided  merit. 
In  recent  years,  besides 
many  portrait  statues, 
French  has  erected 
several  allegorical 
works,  such  as  the 
groups  in  front  of  the 
Custom  House  and  the 
Alma  Mater  at  Colum- 
bia University,  New 
York,  and  the  Com- 
merce and  Jurispru- 
dence on  the  Federal 
Building  at  Cleveland, 
Ohio.  These  works  are 
architectural  and  mon- 
umental and  exhibit 
the  refined  grace  which 
characterizes  all  of 
French's  work,  but  they 
lack  the  vitality  and 
human  charm  which 
make  the  O'Reilley 
Memorial  his  master- 


FIG.    113. — IDEAL   HEAD    (BY   HERBERT   ADAMS). 
POSSESSION  OF  THE    ARTIST. 


piece. 

More  thoroughly 
Parisian  in  sentiment  is  Frederick  MacMonnies  (1863 — ). 
Although  the  pupil  of  St.  Gaudens,  his  manner  is  nervous 
and  at  times  strained,  as,  for  example,  in  his  statuette  of 


286  HISTORY    OF    SCULPTURE. 

Diana.  His  statuettes  of  the  Boy  and  Heron,  Pan  of  Rohaillon, 
and  the  Bacchante  and  Child  are  fascinating  examples  of 
expressive,  living  sculpture.  His  statue  of  Nathan  Hale,  in 
the  City  Hall  Park,  New  York,  is  one  of  the  best  of  our 
civic  statues;  and  his  great  fountain  in  the  Court  of  Honor  at 
the  Chicago  Exhibition,  though  somewhat  lacking  in  simplicity, 
was  nevertheless  a  splendid  product  of  the  Franco-American 
imagination.  French  inspiration  may  also  be  felt  in  the  fine 
groups  of  The  Army  and  The  Navy  which  adorn  the  Brooklyn 
Memorial  Arch,  as  in  the  very  energetic  Horse  Tamers  above 
another  entrance  to  Prospect  Park.  After  a  brief  period 
devoted  to  painting  MacMonnies  has  again  become  a  sculptor, 
having  modelled  a  group  for  the  Peace  Building  at  The  Hague, 
an  elaborate  fountain  for  Denver,  and  is  now  designing  a  Battle 
Monument  for  Princeton. 

Herbert  Adams  (1858 — ),  of  Brooklyn,  shows  his  indebted- 
ness to  St.  Gaudens  in  his  bronze  Angel  for  Emanuel  Baptist 
Church,  Brooklyn,  and  in  his  marble  bas-relief  for  the  Judson 
Memorial  Church,  New  York.  But  almost  alone  among  our 
sculptors,  Adams  has  turned  to  Florence  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury for  his  inspiration.  His  delicately  colored  female  busts, 
and  his  relief  entitled  An  Orchid,  have  an  exquisitely  refined 
Florentine  charm.  In  the  lunette  above  the  entrance  of  St. 
Bartholomew's  Church,  New  York,  representing  a  framed 
Madonna  between  two  angels,  Adams  has  drawn  his  inspira- 
tion from  Luca  della  Robbia.  His  work  lacks  the  vigor  of 
the  Florentine  master,  but  is  full  of  modern  grace  and  charm. 

The  list  of  contemporary  American  sculptors  is  by  no  means 
exhausted  with  the  names  we  have  mentioned.  Frank 
Duveneck  (1848 — ),  although  a  painter  by  profession,  has 
produced  in  the  sepulchral  monument  to  Mrs.  Duveneck  one 
of  the  most  notable  works  in  American  sculpture.  In  its  quiet, 
refined  dignity  it  perpetuates  the  spirit  of  the  best  Florentine 
work  of  the  Renaissance.  Edward  Kemys  (1843-1907),  on 


MODERN    SCULPTURE    IN   AMERICA.  287 

the  other  hand,  in  his  portrayal  of  North  American  Indians  and 
wild  animals  broke  away  from  European  influences  and  created 
a  new  field  for  American  sculpture.  His  works,  though  crude, 
are  full  of  spirit  and  expressive  truth. 

Of  the  sculptors  born  in  the  fifties  may  be  mentioned  Boyle, 
Ruckstuhl,  Niehaus,  Bringhurst,  Rhind  and  Martiny.  John 
J.  Boyle  (1851 — )  exhibits  a  rugged  and  sincere  appre- 
ciation of  primitive  conditions  of  life  in  his  groups,  The  Alarm, 
in  Lincoln  Park,  Chicago,  and  The  Stone  Age,  in  Fairmount 
Park,  Philadelphia.  Frederick  Wellington  Ruckstuhl  (1853 — )> 
though  born  in  Alsace,  was  the  organizing  spirit  of  our 
National  Sculpture  Society  and  has  erected  many  monu- 
ments of  a  national  character,  such  as  the  bronze  Victory  at 
Jamaica,  the  Gloria  Victis  at  Baltimore  and  the  spirited  eques- 
trian statue  of  General  Hartranft  at  Harrisburg.  Charles 
Henry  Niehaus  (1855 — )  received  his  artistic  training  in  Cin- 
cinnati and  in  Munich  and  by  faithful  effort  has  won  his  way 
to  the  front  rank.  His  Garfield  statue  in  Cincinnati,  a  dignified 
and  expressive  portrait,  his  Hahnemann  statue  in  Washington 
and  his  McKinley  monument  at  Canton,  Ohio,  are  the  most 
important  of  a  long  series  of  works.  Robert  P.  Bringhurst 
(1855 — ),  trained  in  St.  Louis  and  in  Paris,  is  the  author  of 
many  clever  fancies  and  attractive  compositions,  of  which  The 
Kiss  of  Eternity  may  be  cited  as  a  typical  example.  J.  Massey 
Rhind  (1858 — ),  a  Scotchman  with  Parisian  training,  has  lived 
in  this  country  since  1889.  He  has  been  most  successful  in 
architectural  decoration.  Learning  enthroned  amid  the  Arts 
and  Sciences,  which  decorates  the  fagade  of  Alexander  Hall  at 
Princeton,  is  his  masterpiece.  Philip  Martiny  (1858 — ), 
trained  in  France  and  an  assistant  to  St.  Gaudens,  has  intro- 
duced into  American  sculpture  a  light,  cheerful,  decorative 
quality.  He  has  been  successful  not  merely  in  designing  foun- 
tains, but  in  the  sculptural  adornment  of  public  buildings. 

The  sculptors  born  in  the  sixties,  though  trained  in  great 


288  HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE. 

measure  in  Paris,  show  a  marked  tendency  to  emphasize 
American  subjects  and  to  work  out  for  themselves  new  fields 
for  sculpture.  We  select  for  brief  notice  Clarke  and  Taft, 
Dallin  and  Partridge,  Proctor,  Barnard,  Bartlett,  MacNeil, 
Pratt  and  Bitter.  Thomas  Shields  Clarke  (1860—),  in  his 
Caryatids  for  the  Appellate  Court  building  in  New  York  and 
in  the  Alma  Mater  designed  for  the  Princeton  campus,  shows 
the  classic  influences  which  he  may  have  derived  from  his 
Parisian  master  Chapu,  but  in  his  Cider  Press  he  betrays  a 
desire  for  a  subject  distinctively  American.  Lorado  Taft 
(1860 — ),  a  teacher  of  modelling  at  the  Art  Institute  in  Chicago 
and  author  of  a  valuable  book  on  The  History  of  American 
Sculpture,  did  some  strikingly  original  and  beautifully  deco- 
rative work  on  the  Horticultural  Building  at  the  Columbian 
Exposition.  Although  the  author  of  several  portrait  statues 
and  military  monuments,  he  will  be  remembered  chiefly  for 
his  ideal  and  decorative  compositions,  as  The  Solitude  of  the 
Soul.  Charles  E.  Dallin  (1861 — ),  instructor  in  sculpture 
in  the  Massachusetts  State  Normal  Art  School,  Boston,  shows 
in  some  of  his  sculptures  a  reflection  of  his  training  in  the 
French  schools,  but  his  most  notable  works,  The  Signal  of 
Peace,  in  Lincoln  Park,  Chicago,  and  The  Medicine  Man,  in 
Fairmount  Park,  Philadelphia,  are  works  based  on  careful  obser- 
vation of  the  American  Indian.  William  Ordway  Partridge 
(1861 — ),  writer  and  lecturer,  has  boldly  applied  impression- 
istic methods  to  sculpture,  as  in  his  bust  of  Tennyson. 
Alexander  Phimister  Proctor  (1862 — )  received  his  technical 
training  in  Paris,  his  inspiration  from  the  mountains  and 
forests  of  the  West.  He  furnished  a  striking  group  of  The 
Goddess  of  Liberty  on  the  Chariot  of  Progress  for  the  Paris 
Exposition  of  1900,  and  his  vigorous  panthers  and  lions  deco- 
rate the  public  parks  of  various  cities.  George  Grey  Barnard 
(1863 — )  is  one  of  the  most  original  and  vigorous  of  American 
sculptors.  The  Two  Natures,  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  is 


MODERN    SCULPTURE   IN   AMERICA.  289 

a  subtle  psychological  subject  expressed  without  regard  to 
conventional  standards.  His  Great  God  Pan  and  his  statue  of 
The  Hewer  are  independent  productions,  which,  however,  re- 
flect his  sympathetic  admiration  for  the  works  of  Michelangelo. 
His  Two  Friends  betrays  the  influence  of  Rodin.  In  1902  he 
received  an  important  commission  to  decorate  with  sculpture  the 
new  Capitol  at  Harrisburg — a  commission  which  unhappily, 
through  no  fault  on  his  part,  has  not  yet  been  carried  into  effect. 
Paul  Wayland  Bartlett  (1865 — )  has  exhibited  great  versatility, 
having  shown  equal  skill  in  character  studies  like  the  Michel- 
angelo and  the  Columbus  in  the  Congressional  Library  at 
Washington,  and  in  portrait  statues  and  equestrian  monuments 
like  the  General  McClellan  in  Philadelphia,  General  Warren  in 
Boston  and  General  Lafayette  in  Paris.  He  has  made  inter- 
esting experiments  in  bronze  casting  and  produced  various 
colored  patinas  which  suggest  the  skill  of  the  Japanese. 
Hermon  A.  MacNeil  (1866 — )  is  known  chiefly  as  an  inspired 
sculptor  of  Indian  life.  His  foreign  training  has  enabled  him 
to  treat  with  skill  and  distinction  such  themes  as  The  Moqui 
Runner,  A  Primitive  Chant  and  The  Sun  Vow.  He  also  did 
important  decorative  work  at  the  Chicago,  Paris  and  Buffalo 
Expositions.  Bela  L.  Pratt  (1867 — )  is  a  sculptor  whose 
broad  training  and  refinement  of  feeling  are  manifest  in  all  his 
works.  Subtle  and  delicate  in  treatment  is  the  relief  group  of 
Peace  and  War  for  the  Butler  Memorial  at  Lowell,  Mass., 
sympathetic  and  refined  the  recumbent  figure  of  Dr.  Coit  in 
the  Chapel  of  St.  Paul's  School,  Concord,  N.  H.,  and  impressive 
in  its  simplicity  The  Prisoner  Boy  at  Andersonville,  Georgia. 
Karl  Theodore  Francis  Bitter  (1867—),  though  born  and 
educated  in  Vienna,  in  1889  came  to  the  United  States  and 
rapidly  identified  himself  with  the  life  of  the  country.  He 
decorated  the  Administration  and  the  Liberal  Arts  buildings 
at  the  Chicago  Exposition  and  was  the  official  Director  of 
Sculpture  at  the  Buffalo  and  St.  Louis  Expositions.  At  Buffalo 


290  HISTORY    OF    SCULPTURE. 

his  Standard  Bearers  with  their  prancing  steeds  were  vigorous 
and  spirited  and  at  St.  Louis  his  relief  representing  the  Signing 
of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  was  treated  with  full  appreciation 
of  its  historic  import.  On  the  other  hand,  his  Villard  and  his 
Hubbard  Memorials  are  lacking  in  poetic  sentiment. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  our  contemporary  American  sculp- 
tors have  received  their  technical  training  in  foreign  schools, 
but  have  developed  not  a  colonial  but  an  independent  art, 
honest,  healthy,  cosmopolitan,  progressive  and  refined. 

EXTANT  MONUMENTS.  The  sculptural  monuments  of  America  adorn 
our  parks,  public  squares,  churches,  civic  buildings,  private  collections, 
cemeteries,  and  battlefields.  Some  are  found  also  in  the  Museum  of  Fine 
Arts  and  the  Athenaeum,  Boston;  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  Lenox 
Library,  and  Historical  Society,  New  York;  the  Pennsylvania  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts,  Philadelphia;  the  Peabody  Museum,  Baltimore;  the  Na- 
tional Capitol  and  the  Corcoran  Art  Gallery,  Washington;  and  the  Art 
Museums  of  Chicago,  Cincinnati,  Detroit,  and  St.  Louis. 


INDEX. 


ADAMS,  Herbert,  286. 

Ageladas,  92. 

Agesandros,  in. 

Agnolo  di  Ventura,  149. 

Agorakritos,  102. 

Agostino  di  Duccio,  188. 

Agostino  Busti,  200. 

Agostino  di  Giovanni,  149. 

Akers,  Benjamin  Paul,  280. 

Algardi,  Alessandro,  218. 

Alkamenes,  102. 

Alessandro  Leopardi,  203. 

Alessandro  Vittoria,  209. 

Allegrain,  Gabriel  Christophe,  228. 

Alonzo  Cano,  238. 

Ambrogio  della  Robbia,  Fra,  190. 

Ambrogino  da  Milano,  201. 

Ammanati,  Bartolommeo,  214. 

Andrea  Bregno,  201. 

Andrea  Briosco,  203. 

Andrea  Ciccione,  204. 

Andrea  da  Aquila,  204. 

Andrea  del  Verrocchio,  106. 

Andrea  della  Robbia,  190. 

Andrea  Fusina,  201. 

Andrea  Orcagna,  149. 

Andrea  (Contucci  da  Monte)  Sansa- 

vino,  207. 

Andrea  Pisano,  148,  151. 
Angers,  David  d',  259. 
Anguier,  224. 
Antelami,  145. 
Antenor,  92. 
Antico,  203. 


Antiochos,  in. 

Antonio  Begarelli,  208. 

Antonio  di  Domenico  da  Bamboc- 

cio,  204. 

Antonio  Gagini,  204. 
Antonio  Omodeo,  199. 
Antonio  Pollajuolo,  193. 
Antonio  Rossellino,  192. 
Apollonios,  112. 
Aquila,  Silvestro  da,  204. 
Area,  Niccolo  dell',  198. 
Archermos,  90. 
Arezzo,  Niccolo  d',  186. 
Aristokles,  93. 
Arkesilaos,  127. 
Armstead,  Henry  Hugh,  271. 
Athenaios,  in. 
Athenis,  90. 
Athenodoros,  in. 

BACHELIER,  Nicholas,  224. 
Bailey,  Edward  Hodges,  268. 
Balduccio,  Giovanni  di,  149. 
Ball,  Thomas,  279. 
Bamboccio,  Antonio  di   Domenico 

da,  204. 

Banco,  Nanni  di,  186. 
Bandinelli,  Baccio,  213. 
Baratta,  Pietro,  218, 
Bari,  Niccold  da,  198. 
Barisanus,  145. 
Barnard,  George  Grey,  288. 
Barrias,  Louis  Ernest,  264. 
Bartholom6,  266. 


2Q2 


INDEX. 


Bartholomew,  Edward  Sheffield,  280. 

Bartlett,  Paul  W.,  289. 

Bartolini,  Lorenzo,  244. 

Bartolo,  Nanni  di,  188. 

Bartolommeo  Ammanati,  214. 

Barye,  Antoine  Louis,  260. 

Bates,  Harry,  273. 

Beauvais,  Vincent  de,  161. 

Begarelli,  Antonio,  208. 

Begas,  Reinhold,  253. 

Behnes,  William,  269. 

Bellano,  Bartolommeo,  203. 

Benedetto  Antelami,  145. 

Benedetto  da  Majano,  193. 

Benedetto  da  Rovezzano,  207. 

Benvenuto  Cellini,  214. 

Bernardo  Cuiffagni,  188. 

Bernardo  Rossellino,  192. 

Bernini,  Lorenzo,  217. 

Bernward,  Bishop,  167. 

Berthelot,  224. 

Bertoldo  di  Giovanni,  188. 

Biduinus,  145. 

Birch,  Charles  B.,  271. 

Bissen,  H.  W.,  247. 

Bitter,  Karl  T.  F.,  289. 

Blaser,  Gustav,  251. 

Boehm,  Sir  Joseph  Edgar,  270. 

Bologna,  Giovanni  da,  216. 

Bonannus,  145,  151. 

Bontemps,  Pierre,  222. 

Bonusamicus,  145. 

Bosio,  Francois  Joseph,  256. 

Bouchardon,  Edme,  228. 

Boupalos,  90. 

Boyle,  John  J.,  287. 

Brackett,  Edward  Augustus,  280. 

Bregno,  Andrea,  201. 

Bringhurst,  Robert  P.,  287. 

Briosco,  Andrea,  203. 

Brock,  Thomas,  271. 


Brown,  Henry  Kirke,  278. 
Briiggeman,  234. 
Brunelleschi,  Filippo,  186. 
Bryaxis,  106. 
Buon,  Bartolommeo,  201. 
Buonaccorso,  186. 
Buonarroti,  Michelangelo,  210. 
Busti,  Agostino,  200. 

CAFFI^RI,  Jean  Jacques,  229. 
Cain,  Auguste,  265. 
Camaino,  Tino  di,  149. 
Campagna,  Girolamo,  209. 
Campbell,  Thomas,  269. 
Campioni,  150. 
Cano,  Alonso,  238. 
Canova,  Antonio,  242. 
Caradosso,  200. 
Carpeaux,  Jean  Baptiste,  264. 
Cartellier,  258. 
Cattaneo,  Danese,  209. 
Cellini,  Benvenuto,  214. 
Cerracchi,  Giuseppe,  275. 
Chalouette,  259. 
Chaudet,  Antoine  Denis,  256. 
Chantrey,  Sir  Francis  Legatt,  267. 
Chapu,  Henri,  261. 
Chaplain,  264. 
Ciccione,  Andrea,  204. 
Civitali,  Matteo,  193. 
Clarke,  Thomas  Shields,  288. 
Claude,  Louis  Michel,  229. 
Clementi,  Prospero,  214. 
Clevinger,  Shobal  Vail,  280. 
Colombe,  Michel,  220. 
Como,  Guido  da,  147. 
Coustou,  Nicholas,  226. 
Coustou,  Guillaume,  226. 
Contucci  da  Monte  Sansavino,  An- 
drea, 207. 
Corradini,  218. 


INDEX. 


293 


Cosmati,  Giovanni,  150. 
Couper,  William,  281. 
Coysevox,  Antoine,  225. 
Cozzarelli,  Giacomo,  197. 
Crawford,  Thomas,  277. 
Cristoforo  Solari,  200. 
Cuiffagni,  Bernardo,  188. 

DALOU,  Jules,  265. 

Dallin,  Charles  E.,  288. 

Danese,  Cattaneo,  209. 

Dannecker,  Johann  Heinrich,  248. 

Danton,  259. 

Desboeufs,  259. 

Desiderio  da  Settignano,  192. 

Dexter,  Henry,  280. 

Dixey,  John,  275. 

Donatello,  186. 

Donner,  Georg  Raphael,  235. 

Dontas,  92. 

Drake,  Friedrich,  250. 

Drury,  Alfred,  274. 

Dubois,  Mrs.,  280. 

Dubois,  Paul,  262. 

Dubroeucq,  Jacques,  237. 

Duccio,  Agostino  di,  188. 

Dumont,  Augustin  Alexandra,  261. 

Dupre,  Giovanni,  244. 

Duquesnoy,  Francois,  237. 

Duret,  Francois  Joseph,  258. 

Durham,  Joseph,  269. 

Du  Seigneur,  258. 

Duveneck,  Frank,  286. 

EBERHARD,  Konrad,  253. 
Enrichus,  145. 
Epigonos,  in. 
Etex,  Antoine,  258. 
Euphranor,  108. 
Ezekiel,  Moses  Jacob,  281. 


FALCONET,  Maurice  fitienne,  228. 

Falguiere,  Jean  Alexandra,  262. 

Fauveau,  Felicie  de,  258. 

Federighi,  Antonio,  197. 

Fedi,  Pio,  244. 

Fehr,  H.  C.,  274. 

Fiesole,  Mino  da,  192. 

Filippo  Brunelleschi,  186. 

Flaxman,  John,  239. 

Fogelberg,  248. 

Foggini,  Giovanni  Battista,  218. 

Foley,  John  Henry,  270. 

Foley,  Margaret,  280. 

Ford,  E.  Onslow,  273. 

Fouchere,  259. 

Fra  Giovan'  Angelo  Montorsoli,  214. 

Fra  Mattia  della  Robbia,  190,  204. 

Francesco  da  Laurana,  204. 

Francesco  di  Giorgio,  197. 

Francesco  di  San  Gallo,  207. 

Francois,  Bastien,  222. 

Frampton,  George  J.,  273. 

Frazee,  John,  276. 

Fr6miet,  Emmanuel,  265. 

French,  Daniel  Chester,  284 

Fusina,  Andrea,  201. 

GAGINI,  Antonio,  204. 
Gagini,  Domenico,  204. 
Gaudens,  Augustus  St.,  283. 
Gentil,  Francois,  224. 
Genzburg,  255. 

Ghiberti,  Lorenzo  di  Cione,  183. 
Ghiberti,  Vittorio,  186. 
Giacomo  Cozzarelli,  197. 
Giacomo  della  Porta,  214. 
Gibbons,  Grinling,  239. 
Gibson,  John,  269. 
Gilbert,  Alfred,  273. 
Giorgio,  Francesco  di,  197. 


294 


INDEX. 


Giovanni,  Agostino  di,  149. 
Giovanni  Antonio  Omodeo,  199. 
Giovanni,  Bertoldo  di,  188. 
Giovanni  da  Bologna,  216. 
Giovanni  da  Pisa,  203. 
Giovanni  della  Robbia,  190. 
Giovanni  di  Balduccio,  149. 
Giovanni  di  Martino,  201 . 
Giovanni  di  Turino,  197. 
Giovanni  Pisano,  148. 
Girardon,  Francois,  225. 
Giraud,  Francois  Gregoire,  258. 
Girolamo  Campagna,  209. 
Girolamo  della  Robbia,  190. 
Glaukias,  92. 
Goujon,  Jean,  222. 
Gould,  Thomas  R.,  280. 
Gower,  Lord  Ronald,  271. 
Gratchoff,  255. 
Greenough,  Horatio,  277. 
Gruamons,  145. 
Guglielmo  della  Porta,  214. 
Guido  da  Como,  147. 
Guido  Mazzoni,  199. 
Guillain,  224. 

Guillaume,  Jean  Baptiste  Eugene, 
258. 

HAHNEL,  Ernst,  253. 
Hart,  Joel  T.,  280. 
Haseltine,  Henry  F.,  280. 
Herlin,  Friedrich,  233. 
Hess,  Anton,  254. 
Hildebrand,  Adolph,  253. 
Hosmer,  Miss  Harriet,  280. 
Houdon,  Jean  Antoine,  229. 
Hughes,  Ball,  278. 
Hutchinson,  Allen,  274. 

IL  TRIBOLO,  209. 
Isigonos,  in. 


Ives,  C.  B.,  280. 

JACKSON,  J.  A.,  280. 
Jacopo  della  Quercia,  197, 
Jacopo  Sansavino,  209. 
Jerichau,  J.  A.,  247. 
John,  W.  Goscombe,  273. 
Jones,  Adrien,  274. 
Jones,  John  E.,  269. 
Jouffroy,  Francois,  261. 
Juste,  Antoine,  221. 
Juste,  Jean,  221. 

KALAMIS,  94. 
Kamensky,  255. 
Kanachos,  92. 
Kemys,  Edward,  286. 
Kephisodotos,  107. 
Keyser,  Ephraim,  281. 
Kirk,  Thomas,  269. 
Kiss,  August,  251. 
Klearchos,  92. 
Knoll,  Conrad,  254. 
Kolotes,  102. 
Kraft,  Adam,  231. 
Kresilas,  95. 

LANCERE,  255. 
Laurana,  Francesco  da,  204. 
Lawson,  George  A.,  271. 
Lee,  T.  Stirling,  273. 
Leighton,  Sir  Frederick,  272. 
Lemot,  258. 

Lemoyne,  Jean  Baptiste,  227 
Leochares,  106. 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  208. 
Leoni,  Leone,  216. 
Leoni,  Pompeo,  216. 
Leopardi,  Alessandro,'  203. 
Lewis,  Edmonia,  281. 
Lieberich,  255. 


INDEX. 


295 


Lombard!,  Alfonso,  208. 
Lombardo,  Antonio,  203. 
Lombardo,  Girolamo,  209. 
Lombardo,  Pietro,  202. 
Lombardo,  Tommaso,  209. 
Lombardo,  Tullio,  202. 
Lorenzo  di  Cione  Ghiberti,  183. 
Lorenzo  di  Mariano,  108. 
Lorrain,  Robert  le,  225. 
Luca  della  Robbia,  189. 
Luca  di  Andrea  della  Robbia,  190. 
Luigi  Pampaloni,  244. 
Lysippos,  107. 

MACLEAN,  T.  Nelson,  271. 
MacMonnies,  Frederick  W.,  285. 
MacNeil,  Hermon  A.,  289. 
Maderna,  Stefano,  218. 
Majano,  Benedetto  da,  193. 
Mantegazza,  Antonio,  199. 
Mantegazza,  Cristoforo,  199. 
Mariano,  Lorenzo  di,  198. 
Martino,  Giovanni  di,  201. 
Martiny,  Philip,  287. 
Massegne,  Jacobello,  150. 
Massegne,  Pietro  Polo,  150. 
Matteo  Civitali,  193. 
Mattia,  Fra,  della  Robbia,  190. 
Mazzoni,  Guido,  199. 
McDowell,  Patrick,  269. 
Mi •!! an,  224. 
Merci£,  Antonin,  262. 
Michelangelo,  Buonarroti,  210. 
Michelozzi,  Michelozzo,  188. 
Milano,  Ambrogino  da,  201. 
Mino  da  Fiesole,  192. 
Modemo,  203. 
Moine,  Antonin,  259. 
Montanes,  238. 
Montelupo,  Raffaello  da,  214. 
Montorsoli,  Fra  Giovan' Angelo,  214. 


Mozier,  Joseph,  280. 
Mullins,  Roscoe,  273. 
Myron,  08. 

NANNI  DI  BANCO,  186. 
Nanni  di  Bartolo,  188. 
Naps,  255. 
Nevin,  Blanche,  281. 
Niccola  Pisano,  146. 
Niccolo  da  Bari,  198. 
Niccolo  d'  Arezzo,  186. 
Niccolo  delP  Area,  198. 
Niccolo  Pericoli,  209. 
Niccolo,  Piero  di,  201. 
Niehaus,  Charles  H.,  287. 
Noble,  Matthew,  271. 

OMODEO,  Giovanni  Antonio,  199. 
Onatas,  92. 
Orcagna,  Andrea,  149. 
Orleans,  Marie  d',  258. 

PACKER,  Michael,  233. 
Paionios,  102. 
Pajou,  Augustin,  229. 
Palmer,  Erastus  Dow,  279. 
Pampaloni,  Luigi,  244. 
Partridge,  William  Ordway,  288. 
Pasiteles,  127. 
Patras,  Lambert,  170. 
Pegram,  Henry  A.,  273. 
Pericoli,  Niccolo,  209. 
Perraud,  262. 
Perreal,  221. 
Pheidias,  99. 

Piero  di  Giovanni  Tedesco,  183. 
Piero  di  Niccolo,  201 . 
Pietro  Baratta,  218. 
Pietro  Polo  Massegne,  150. 
Pigalle,  Jean  Baptiste,  228. 
Pilon,  Germain,  224. 


2g6 


INDEX. 


Pio  Fedi,  244. 
Pisa,  Giovanni  da,  203. 
Pisano,  Andrea,  148,  151. 
Pisano,  Giovanni,  148. 
Pisano,  Niccola,  146. 
Pitts,  William,  269. 
Pollajuolo,  Antonio,  193. 
Polydoros,  in. 
Polykleitos,  95. 
Pomeroy,  Frederick,  274. 
Pompeo  Leoni,  216. 
Porta,  Giacomo  della,  214. 
Porta,  Guglielmo  della,  214. 
Pot,  Jean  le,  222. 
Powers,  Hiram,  277. 
Powers,  Longworth,  281. 
Powers,  Preston,  281. 
Pradier,  James,  258. 
Pratt,  Bela  L.,  289. 
Praxiteles,  106,  in. 
Preault,  258. 
Prieur,  Barthelemy,  224. 
Proctor,  A.  P.,  288. 
Properzia  de'  Rossi,  209. 
Prospero  Clementi,  214. 
Puech,  262. 
Puget,  Pierre,  226. 
Pyromachos,  in. 
Pythagoras,  95. 

QUELLDSTUS,  Artus,  237. 

Queirolo,  218. 

Quercia,  Jacopo  della,  197 

RAFFAELLO  DA  MONTELUPO,  214. 
Rauch,  Christian  Daniel,  250. 
Reams,  Vinnie,  281. 
Rebisso,  Louis,  281. 
Redfem,  James  F.,  271. 
Rhind,  J.  Massey,  287. 
Rhoikos,  90. 


Ricci,  Stefano,  244. 
Riccio,  203. 
Richier,  Ligier,  224. 
Ridolphinus,  145. 
Riemenschneider,  Tilman,  233. 
Rietschel,  Ernst  Friedrich  August, 

251- 

Rinehart,  William  Henry,  279 
Robbia,  Fra  Ambrogio  della,  190. 
Robbia,  Andrea  della,  190. 
Robbia,  Fra  Mattia  della,  190,  204. 
Robbia,  Giovanni  della,  190. 
Robbia,  Girolamo  della,  190. 
Robbia,  Luca  della,  189. 
Robbia,  Luca  di  Andrea  della,  190. 
Robertus,  145. 
Rodin,  Auguste,  266. 
Rogers,  John,  280. 
Rogers,  Randolph,  279. 
Romano,  204. 

Romano,  Gian  Cristoforo,  204. 
Roscoe  Mullins,  273. 
Rossellino,  Antonio,  192. 
Rossellino,  Bernardo,  192. 
Rossi,  Properzia  de',  209. 
Roty,  264. 

Rovezzano,  Benedetto  da,  207. 
Ruckstuhl,  F.  Wellington,  287. 
Rude,  Francois,  259. 
Rush,  William,  276. 

SAINT  MARCEAUX,  Ren6  de,  263. 

Sammartino,  218. 

Samonoff,  255. 

San  Gallo,  Francesco  di,  207. 

Sano,  Turino  di,  197. 

Sansavino,    Andrea    (Contucci    da 

Monte),  207. 
Sansavino,  Jacopo,  209 
Sarrazin,  224. 
Schadow,  Johann  Gottfried,  248. 


INDEX. 


297 


Schadow,  Rudolph,  250. 
Scheffauer,  P.  J.,  248. 
Schenck,  F.  E.  E.,  274. 
Schievelbein,    Friedrich    Hermann, 

251. 

Schilling,  Johannes,  253. 
Schliiter,  Andreas,  235. 
Schwanthaler,  Ludwig,  253. 
Sergell,  J.  T.,  247. 
Settignano,  Desiderio  da,  192. 
Silanion,  107. 
Silvestro  da  Aquila,  204. 
Skopas,  104. 
Slodtz,  Michel,  228. 
Solari,  Cristoforo,  200. 
Stark,  Robert,  273. 
Stebbins,  Emma,  281. 
Stevens,  Alfred  George,  269. 
Stone,  Nicholas,  239. 
Story,  Waldo,  281. 
Story,  William  Wetmore,  279. 
Stoss,  Veil,  231. 
Stratonikos,  in. 
Swan,  John  M.,  273. 
Syrlin,  Jorg,  233. 

TACCONE,  Paolo,  204. 

Taft,  Lorado,  288. 

Tatti,  Jacopo,  209. 

Tauriskos,  112. 

Tedesco,  Piero  di  Giovanni,  183. 

Tenerani,  Pietro,  243. 

Tenven,  Jan,  237. 

Texier,  Jean,  222. 

Theed,  William,  269. 

Theodores,  90. 

Thompson,  Launt,  280. 

Thornycroft,  Hamo,  272. 

Thorwaldsen,  Bertel,  245. 

Tieck,  Christian  Friedrich,  250. 

Timotheos,  106. 


Tino  di  Camaino,  149. 
Tinworth,  George,  271. 
Toft,  A.,  274. 
Torrigiano,  Piero,  208. 
Tribolo,  U,  209. 
Triqueti,  258. 
Turino  di  Sano,  197. 
Turino,  Giovanni  di,  197. 
Tutilo,  164. 

ULOCRINO,  203. 

VASSALLETTO  I.,  150. 
Vassalletto  II.,  150. 
Vauthier,  Moreau,  264. 
Vecchietta,  Lorenzo,  197. 
Vela,  Vincenzo,  244. 
Ventura,  Agnolo  di,  149. 
Verrocchio,  Andrea  del,  196. 
Vincent  de  Beauvais,  161. 
Vinci,  Leonardo  da,  208. 
Vischer,  Peter,  231. 
Vittoria,  Alessandro,  209. 
Vittorio  Ghiberti,  186. 
Vouet,  224. 

WARD,  John  Quincy  Adams,  28. 
Warner,  Olin  Levi,  283. 
Watts,  George  Frederick,  272. 
Wcidenhaupt,  245. 
Wcstmacott,  Sir  Richard,  267. 
Wiedewelt,  Johannes,  245. 
Wohlgemuth,  Michael,  231. 
Woolner,  Thomas,  271. 
Wright,  Mrs.  Patience,  275. 
Wyatt,  Richard  John,  269. 

XENOKRATES,  in. 
Ximencs,  Ettore,  245. 

ZUMBUSCH,  Caspar,  254. 


A   History  of  Sculpture. 

BY 

ALLAN  MARQUAND,   Ph.D.,  L.H.D. 

Professor  of  Art  and  Archaeology  in  Princeton  University, 

AND 

ARTHUR   L.  FROTHINGHAM,   Jr.,   Ph.D. 

With  Frontispiece  and  113  Illustrations  in  half-tone  in  the 
text,  Bibliographies,  Addresses  for  Photographs  and  Casts,  etc 
Crown  8vo,  321  pages 


HENRY  W.  KENT,  Curator  of  the  Seater  Museum,   Watkins,  N.  Y. 

"  Like  the  other  works  in  this  series  of  yours,  it  is  simply  invaluable 
filling  a  long-felt  want.  The  bibliographies  and  lists  will  be  keenly 
appreciated  by  all  who  work  with  a  class  of  students." 

CHARLES  H.  MOORE,  Harvard  University. 

"The  illustrations  are  especially  good,  avoiding  the  excessively 
black  background  which  produce  harsh  contrasts  and  injure  the  outlines 
of  so  many  half-tone  prints." 

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"  These  names  are  sufficient  guarantee  for  the  excellence  of  the 
book  and  its  fitness  for  the  object  it  was  designed  for.  I  was  especially 
interested  in  the  chapter  on  Renaissance  Sculpture  in  Italy." 

CRITIC,  New  York. 

"  This  history  is  a  model  of  condensation.  .  .  .  Each  period  is 
treated  in  full,  with  descriotions  of  its  general  characteristics  and  its 
individual  developments  under  various  conditions,  physical,  political, 
religious  and  the  like.  ...  A  general  history  of  sculpture  has  never 
before  been  written  in  English — never  in  any  language  in  convenient  text- 
book form.  This  publication,  then, should  meet  with  an  enthusiastic  recep- 
tion among  students  and  amateurs  of  art,  not  so  much,  however,  because  it 
is  the  only  book  of  its  kind,  as  for  its  intrinsic  merit  and  attractive  form." 

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"A  concise  survey  of  the  history  of  sculpture  is  something  needed 
everywhere.  ...  A  good  feature  of  this  book  —  and  one  which 
should  be  imitated — is  the  list  indicating  where  casts  and  photographs 
may  best  be  obtained.  Of  course  such  a  volume  is  amply  indexed." 

NOTRE  DAME  SCHOLASTIC,  Notre  Dame,  Ind. 

"  The  work  is  orderly,  the  style  lucid  and  easy.  The  illustrations, 
numbering  over  a  hundred,  are  sharply  cut  and  well  selected.  Besides  a 
general  bibliography,  there  is  placed  at  the  end  of  each  period  of  style  a 
special  list  to  which  the  student  may  refer,  should  he  wish  to  pursue 
more  fully  any  particular  school." 


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Longmans,     Green     &    Go's    Publications 

STYLE  IN  FURNITURE 

By  R.  DAVIS  BENN 
With  102  Plates  by  W.  C.  Baldock.    8vo. 

CONTENTS:  The  Seventeenth  Century  — "Elizabethan  " — "Jacobean"  —  "Queen 
Anne  "  —  Sir  William  Chambers  — "  Chippendale  " —  "  Heppelwhite  "  —  "  Sheraton  "  — 
Other  Georgian  Types  —  "  Adam  "  -  •"  Louis-Quatorz  "  —  "  Louis-Quinze  "  —  "  Louis- 
Seize  "  —  "  Empire  "  —  "  New  Art  "  in  France  —  The  Nineteenth  Century  —  "  Quaint." 

The  Italian  Orders  of  Architecture 

A  Practical  Book  for  the  Use  of  Architects  and  Craftsmen.    Consisting 

of  Letterpress,  with  32  Plates  based  on  the  Orders  of  Vignola, 

Palladio,  Qibbs,  Chambers,  and  other  Masters. 

By  CHARLES  GOURLAY 

B.Sc.  (Glasgow  University),  Architect;  Associate  of  the  Royal  Institute  of 

British  Architects;  Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland; 
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Author  of  "  The  Constructio    of  a  House  "  and  "  Elementary  Building  Con- 
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ITALIAN  GARDENS 
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With  Notes  by  the  Artist.     Royal  4to.  ( 10  X  14).      Cloth,  gilt  top,  in  a  box. 

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SOME  ENGLISH  GARDENS 

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Author  of  "  Wood  and  Garden,"  "  Home  and  Garden,"  "  Old  West  Surrey,"  etc. 

Royal  4to. 

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There  is  not  a  commonplace  picture  in  the  whole  book."  —  Country  Life  in  America. 

THE  ARCHITECTS'  LIBRARY 

Edited  by  F.  M.  SIMPSON,  F.R.I.B.A. 

Professor  of  Architecture,  University  College,  London. 
A  History  of  Architectural  Development.    By  F.  M.  SIMPSON,  F.R.I.B.A. 
Vol.  I.  Ancient,  Early  Christian  and  Byzantine.    With  180  Illustrations. 
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Building  Construction.    Two  volumes. 

Vol.  I.  By  BERESFORD  PITE,  F.R.I.B.,  and  others. 
Brickwork;  Stonework;  Carpentry;  Construction  in  Metals.    With  249  Illustrations. 

Vol.  II.  By  J.  H.  MARKHAM,  A.R.T.B.,  and  others. 

Reinforced  Concrete;  Roof  Coverings;  External  Plumbing;  Timber;  Joinery,  etc.,  etc. 

With  142  Illustrations. 

The  aim  of  the  promoters  of  this  series  is  to  make  it  a  complete  library  of  reference 
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BY 
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Index.    New  and  Enlarged  Edition  (17th  Printing)  1919 

Crown  8vo.    Pp.  xxii  +  358.    Net,  $2.00 


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carefully  and  accurately  set  forth."  —  Outlook,  N.Y. 

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LONGMANS,  GREEN,  85  CO.,  Publishers 
Fourth  Avenue  and  3oth  Street,  New  York 


A  History  of  Architecture. 

BY 
A.  D.  F.  HAMLIN,  A.M. 

Professor  of  the  History  of  Architecture,  Columbia  University. 

With  frontispiece  and  235  Illustrations  and  Diagrams, 
Bibliographies,  Glossary,  Index  of  Architects,  and  a  General 
Index.  Crown  8vo,  pp.  xxvii-467,  net,  $2.00. 


"The  text  of  this  book  is  very  valuable  because  of  the  singularly  in- 
telligent view  taken  of  each  separate  epoch.  .  .  .  The  book  is  extremely 
well  furnished  with  bibliographies,  lists  of  monuments  [which]  are  excel- 
lent. ...  If  any  reasonable  part  of  the  contents  of  this  book  can  be  got 
into  the  heads  of  those  who  study  it,  they  will  have  excellent  ideas  about 
architecture  and  the  beginnings  of  a  sound  knowledge  of  it." 

— THE  NATION,  NEW  YORK. 

"A  manual  that  will  be  invaluable  to  the  student,  while  it  will  give  to 
the  general  reader  a  sufficiently  tull  outline  tor  iiis  purposes  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  various  schools  ol  architecture.  What  makes  it  of  special  value 
is  the  large  number  of  ground  pians  of  typical  buildings  and  the  sketches  of 
bits  of  detail  of  columns,  arches,  windows  and  doorways.  Each  chapter  is 
prefaced  by  a  list  of  books  recommended,  and  each  ends  with  a  list  of 
monuments.  The  illustrations  are  numerous  and  well  executed." 

— SAN   FRANCISCO  CHRONICLE. 

"Probably  presents  more  comprehensively  and  at  the  same  time  con- 
cisely, the  various  periods  and  styles  of  architecture,  with  a  characteriza- 
tion of  the  most  important  works  of  each  period  and  style,  than  any  other 
published  work.  .  .  .  The  volume  fills  a  gap  in  architectural  literature 
which  has  long  existed." — ADVERTISER/  BOSTON. 

"A  neatly  published  work,  adapted  to  the  use  either  of  student  or  gen- 
eral reader.  As  a  text-book  it  is  a  concise  and  orderly  setting  torth  of  the 
main  principles  of  architecture  followed  by  the  different  schools.  The  life 
history  of  each  period  is  brief  yet  thorough.  .  .  .  The  treatment  is  broad 
and  not  over-critical.  The  chief  facts  are  so  grouped  that  the  student  can 
easily  grasp  them.  The  plan-drawings  are  clear-cut  and  serve  their  purpose 
admirably.  The  half-tone  illustrations  are  modern  in  selection  and  treat- 
ment. The  style  is  clear,  easy  and  pleasing.  The  entire  production  shows 
a  studious  and  orderly  mind.  A  new  and  pleasing  characteristic  is  the 
absence  of  all  discussion  on  disputed  points.  In  its  unity,  clearness  and 
simplicity  lie  its  charm  and  interest." 

— NOTRE  DAME  SCHOLASTIC,  NOTRE  DAME,  IND. 

"This  is  a  very  thorough  and  compendious  history  of  the  art  of  archi- 
tecture from  the  earliest  times  down  to  the  present.  .  .  .  The  work  is 
elaborately  illustrated  with  a  great  host  of  examples,  pictures,  diagrams,  etc. 
It  is  intended  to  be  used  as  a  school  text-book,  and  is  very  conveniently 
arranged  for  this  purpose,  with  suitable  headings  in  bold-faced  type,  and  a 
copious  index.  Teachers  and  students  will  find  it  a  capital  thing  for  the 
purpose." — PICAYUNE,  NEW  ORLEANS. 


LONGMANS,  GREEN,  &  CO.,  Publishers, 

Fourth  Avenue  &  30th  Street,  New  York. 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


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A    001  441  627    5 


